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SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND   COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


THE  STORY  OF  THE 

MAP  OF  EUROPE 

ITS  MAKING  AND  ITS  CHANGING 


BY 

L.  P.  BENEZET 

SUPERINTENDENT    OF    SCHOOLS,    LA  CROSSE,    WISCONSIN 


SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


COPYRIGHT,  1916 
By  SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE 

This  little  volume  is  the  result  of  the  interest 
shown  by  pupils,  teachers,  and  the  general  public  in 
a  series  of  talks  on  the  causes  of  the  great  European 
war  which  were  given  by  the  author  in  the  fall 
of  1914.  The  audiences  were  widely  different  in 
character.  They  included  pupils  of  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades,  students  in  high  school 
and  normal  school,  teachers  in  the  public  schools, 
an  association  of  business  men,  and  a  convention  of 
boards  of  education.  In  every  case,  the  same 
sentiment  was  voiced:  "If  there  were  only  some 
book  which  would  give  us  these  facts  in  simple 
language  and  illustrate  them  by  maps  and  charts  as 
you  have  done!"  After  searching  the  market  for  a 
book  of  this  sort  without  success,  the  author  deter- 
mined to  put  the  subject  of  his  talks  into  manuscript 
form.  It  has  been  his  aim  to  write  in  a  style  which 
is  well  within  the  comprehension  of  the  children  in 
the  upper  grades  and  yet  is  not  too  juvenile  for  adult 
readers.  The  book  deals  with  the  remarkable 
sequence  of  events  in  Europe  which  made  the  great 
war  inevitable.  Facts  are  revealed  which,  so  far  as 
the  author  knows,  have  not  been  published  in  any 
history  to  date;  facts  which  had  the  strongest 
possible  bearing  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

The  average  American,  whether  child  or  adult, 
has  little  conception  of  conditions  in  Europe.  In 
America  all  races  mix.  The  children  of  the  Polish 
Jew  mingle  with  those  of  the  Sicilian,  and  in  the 
second  generations  both  peoples  have  become 

357349 


2 


Preface 


Americans.  Bohemians  intermarry  with  Irish, 
Scotch  with  Norwegians.  In  Europe,  on  the  other 
hand,  Czech  and  Teuton,  Bulgar  and  Serb  may  live 
side  by  side  for  centuries  without  mixing  or  losing 
their  distinct  racial  characteristics.  In  order  that 
the  American  reader  may  understand  the  compli- 
cated problem  of  European  peace,  a  study  of  races 
and  languages  is  given  in  the  text,  showing  the  rela- 
tionship of  Slav,  Celt,  Latin,  and  Teuton,  and  the 
various  sub-divisions  of  these  peoples.  A  knowledge 
of  these  facts  is  very  essential  to  any  understanding 
of  the  situation  in  Europe.  The  author  has  pointed 
out  the  fact  that  political  boundaries  are  largely 
king-made,  and  that  they  have  seldom  been  drawn 
with  regard  to  the  natural  division  of  Europe  by 
nationalities,  or  to  the  wishes  of  the  mass  of  the 
population. 

The  chapter,  entitled  "  Europe  as  it  Should  Be," 
with  its  accompanying  map,  shows  the  boundaries 
of  the  various  nations  as  they  would  look  if  the  bulk 
of  the  people  of  each  nationality  were  included  in  a 
single  political  division.  In  many  places,  it  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  draw  sharp  lines.  Greek 
shades  off  into  Bulgar  on  one  side  and  into  Skipetar 
and  Serb  on  the  other.  Prague,  the  capital  of  the 
Czechs,  is  one-third  German  in  its  population. 
There  are  large  islands  of  Germans  and  Magyars 
in  the  midst  of  the  Roumanians  of  Transylvania. 
These  are  a  few  examples  out  of  many  which  could 
be  cited.  However,  the  general  aim  of  the  chapter 
has  been  to  divide  the  continent  into  nations,  in  each 
of  which  the  leading  race  would  vastly  predominate 
in  population. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  study  of  this  little  work  will 


-  Preface  3 

not  only  throw  light  upon  the  causes  of  war  in  gen- 
eral, but  will  also  reveal  its  cruelty  and  its  needless- 
ness.  It  is  shown  that  the  history  of  Europe  from 
the  time  of  the  great  invasions  by  the  Germanic 
tribes  has  been  a  continuous  story  of  government 
without  the  consent  of  the  governed. 

A  preventive  for  wars,  such  as  statesmen  and  phil- 
anthropists in  many  countries  have  urged,  is  out- 
lined in  the  closing  chapter.  It  would  seem  as 
though  after  this  terrible  demonstration  of  the  results 
of  armed  peace,  the  governments  of  the  world  would 
be  ready  to  listen  to  some  plan  which  would  forever 
forbid  the  possibility  of  another  war.  Just  as 
individuals  in  the  majority  of  civilized  countries 
discovered,  a  hundred  years  ago,  that  it  was  no 
longer  necessary  for  them  to  carry  weapons  in  order 
to  insure  their  right  to  live  and  to  enjoy  protection, 
so  nations  may  learn  at  last  that  peace  and  security 
are  preferable  to  the  fruits  of  brigandage  and  aggres- 
sion. The  colonies  of  America,  after  years  of 
jealousy  and  small  differences,  followed  by  a  tre- 
mendous war,  at  last  learned  this  lesson.  In  the 
same  way  the  states  of  Europe  will  have  to  learn  it. 
The  stumbling  blocks  in  the  way  are  the  remains  of 
feudal  government  in  Europe  and  the  ignorance 
and  short-sightedness  of  the  common  people  in  many 
countries.  Ignorance  is  rapidly  waning  with  the 
advance  of  education,  and  we  trust  that  feudalism 
will  not  long  survive  its  last  terrible  crime,  the  world 
war  of  1914. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  little  work,  the  author 
has  received  many  helpful  suggestions  from  co- 
workers.  His  thanks  are  especially  due  to  Professor 
A.  G.  Terry  of  Northwestern  University  and  Pro- 


4  Preface 

fessor  A.  H.  Sanford  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Normal 
School  at  La  Crosse,  who  were  kind  enough  to  read 
through  and  correct  the  manuscript  before  its  final 
revision.  Acknowledgment  is  also  made  to  Row, 
Peterson  and  Company  for  kind  permission  to  use 
illustrations  from  History  Stories  of  Other  Lands; 
also  to.  the  International  Film  Service,  Inc.,  of  New 
York  City  for  the  use  of  many  valuable  copyright 
illustrations  of  scenes  relating  to  the  great  war. 

L.   P.   BENEZET. 

La  Crosse,  Wisconsin, 
January  20,  1916. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Preface 1 

List  of  Maps 6 

List  of  Illustrations 7 

I.     The  Great  War 9 

II.     Rome  and  the  Barbarian  Tribes      22 

III.  From  Chiefs  to  Kings 37 

IV.  Master  and  Man 52 

V.     A  Babel  of  Tongues 61 

VI.     "  The  Terrible  Turk" 78 

VII.     The  Rise  of  Modern  Nations 87 

VIII.     The  Fall  of  Two  Kingdoms 101 

IX.     The  Little  Man  from  .the  Common  People    .    .112 

X.     A  King-Made  Map  and  Its  Trail  of  Wrongs     .  127 

XI.     Italy  a  Nation  at  Last 136 

XII.     The  Man  of  Blood  and  Iron 144 

XIII.  The  Balance  of  Power 162 

XIV.  The"  Entente  Cordiale" 178 

XV.     The  Sowing  of  the  Dragon's  Teeth 191 

XVI.     Who  Profits? 203 

XVII.     The  Spark  that  Exploded  the  Magazine    ...  212 

XVIII.     Why  England  Came  In 222 

XIX.     Diplomacy  and  Kingly  Ambition 231 

XX.     Europe  As  It  Should  Be 243 

XXI.     The  Cost  of  It  All 251 

XXII.     The  Causes  of  War  and  a  Remedy 260 

Pronouncing  Glossary 269 

Index:    .                                                                .  273 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

PAGE 

Distribution  of  Peoples  According  to  Relationship       .    .  65 

Distribution  of  Languages 66 

Southeastern  Europe  in  600  B.C 72 

Southeastern  Europe  975  A.D 74 

Southeastern  Europe  1690 82 

The  Empire  of  Charlemagne 90 

Europe  in  1540 (following)  92 

The  Growth  of  Brandenburg-Prussia  1400-1806    ....  99 

Italy  in  525 114 

Italy  in  650 115 

Italy  in  1175 116 

Europe  in  1796 (following)  118 

Europe  in  1810 (following)  120 

Europe  in  1815 (following)  130 

Italy  Made  One  Nation  —  1914  —      ....  (following)  142 

Formation  of  the  German  Empire 158 

Southeastern  and  Central  Europe  1796 168 

Losses  of  Turkey  During  the  Nineteenth  Century   ...  169 

Turkey  As  the  Balkan  Allies  Planned  to  Divide  It  .    .    .  192 

Changes  Resulting  from  Balkan  Wars  1912-1913      ...  198 

The  Two  Routes  from  Germany  into  France    ......  220 

Europe  as  It  Should  Be (following)  246 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The  Peace  Palace  at  the  Hague Frontispiece 

Fleeing  from  Their  Homes,  Around  which  a  Battle  is 

Raging 12 

A  Drill  Ground  in  Modern  Europe 20 

The  Forum  of  Rome  as  It  Was  1600  Years  Ago   ....  26 

The  Last  Combat  of  the  Gladiators 28 

Germans  Going  into  Battle 31 

A  Hun  Warrior 32 

Gaius  Julius  Caesar 34 

A  Frankish  Chief 38 

Movable  Huts  of  Early  Germans 39 

Goths  on  the  March 40 

Franks  Crossing  the  Rhine 41 

Men  of  Normandy  Landing  in  England 42 

Alexander  Defeating  the  Persians 44 

A  Knight  in  Armor 46 

A  Norman  Castle  in  England 53 

A  Vassal  Doing  Homage  to  His  Lord 56 

William  the  Conqueror 58 

A  Typical  Bulgarian  Family 76 

Mohammed  II  Before  Constantinople 79 

A  Scene  in  Salonika 85 

Louis  XIV- 92 

John  Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough 93 

The  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg      .    . 94 

Frederick  the  Great 96 

Catharine  II 103 

Courtier  of  Time  of  Louis  XIV 105 

The  Taking  of  the  Bastille 106 

7 


8  List  of  Illustrations 

The  Palace  of  Versailles 107 

The  Reign  of  Terror 109 

The  First  Singing  of  "The  Marseillaise" 110 

Charles  the  Fifth 117 

The  Emperor  Napoleon  in  1814 122 

The  Retreat  from  Moscow 124 

Napoleon  at  Waterloo 126 

The  Congress  of  Vienna 128 

Prince  Metternich 134 

The  First  Meeting  of  Garibaldi  and  Victor  Emmanuel    .    140 

Bismarck 145 

An  Attack  on  a  Convoy  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War      .    154 
The  Proclamation  at  Versailles  of  William  I  as  Emperor 

of  Germany 156 

Peter  the  Great .164 

Entrance  to  the  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia        166 

The  Congress  of  Berlin 170 

An  Arab  Sheik  and  His  Staff 179 

A  Scene  in  Constantinople 184 

Durazzo 196 

A  Modern  Dreadnaught 202 

Submarine 204 

A  Fort  Ruined  by  the  Big  German  Guns 218 

Russian  Peasants  Fleeing  Before  the  German  Army    .    .234 
A  Bomb-proof  Trench  in  the  Western  War  Front    ...   238 

Polish  Children    . 247 

The  Price  of  War 250 

Rendered  Homeless  by  War 253 

Charles  XII  of  Sweden  .  .   256 


THE  STORY  OF  THE 
MAP   OF    EUROPE 

CHAPTER  I 
THE   GREAT  WAR 

The  call  from  Europe. —  Friend  against  friend. —  Why? — 
Death  and  devastation. —  No  private  quarrel. —  Ordered  by 
government. —  What  makes  government? — The  influence  of 
the  past. —  Four  causes  of  war. 

Among  the  bricklayers  at  work  on  a  building 
which  was  being  erected  in  a  great  American 
city  during  the  summer  of  1914  were  two  men  Russian, 
who  had  not  yet  become  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  Born  abroad,  they  still  owed  allegiance, 
one  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  the  other  to 
the  Czar  of  Russia. 

Meeting  in  a  new  country,  and  using  a  new 
language  which  gave  them  a  chance  to  under- 
stand each  other,  they  had  become  well 
acquainted.  They  were  members  of  the  same 

labor  union,  and  had  worked  side  by  side  on 

The  two 

several  different  jobs.     In  the  course  of  time,  a  chums 
firm  friendship  had  sprung  up  between  them. 

Suddenly,  on  the  same  day,  each  was  notified 
to  call  at  the  office  of  the  agent  of  his  govern- 

9 


10 


The  Story   of 


The  call 

from 

Europe 


A  sad 
parting 


The  great 
war 


merit  in  the  city.  Next  morning  the  Russian 
came  to  his  boss  to  explain  that  he  must  quit 
work,  that  he  had  been  called  home  to  fight  for 
the  "  Little  Father"  of  the  Russians.  He  found 
his  chum,  the  Austrian,  there  ahead  of  him,  tell- 
ing that  he  had  to  go,  for  the  Russians  had 
declared  war  on  Austria  and  the  good  Kaiser,* 
Franz  Josef,  had  need  of  all  his  young  men. 

The  two  chums  stared  at  each  other  in  sorrow 
and  dismay.  The  pitiless  arm  of  the  god  of 
war  had  reached  across  the  broad  Atlantic, 
plucking  them  back  from  peace  and  security. 
With  weapons  put  into  their  hands  they  would 
be  ordered  to  kill  each  other  on  sight. 

A  last  hand-clasp,  a  sorrowful  "Good  luck  to 
you,"  and  they  parted. 

Why  was  this  necessary?  What  was  this 
irresistible  force,  strong  enough  to  separate  the 
two  friends  and  drag  them  back  five  thousand 
miles  for  the  purpose  of  killing  each  other? 

To  answer  these  two  questions  is  the  purpose 
of  this  little  volume. 

Beginning  with  the  summer  of  1914,  Europe 
and  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa  were  torn  and 
racked  with  the  most  tremendous  war  that  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  Millions  of  men  were 
killed.  Other  millions  were  maimed,  blinded,  or 
disfigured  for  life.  Still  other  millions  were 


*  In  the  German  language,  the  title  Kaiser  means  Emperor. 


The  Map  of  Europe  11 

herded  into  prison  camps  or  forced  to  work 
like  convict  laborers.  Millions  of  homes  were  . 
filled  with  grief.  Millions  of  women  were  hardships 
forced  to  do  hard  work  which  before  the  war 
had  been  considered  beyond  their  power. 
Millions  of  children  were  left  fatherless.  What 
had  been  the  richest  and  most  productive  farm- 
ing land  in  Europe  was  made  a  barren  waste. 
Thousands  of  villages  and  towns  were  utterly 
destroyed  and  their  inhabitants  were  forced  to 
flee,  the  aged,  the  sick,  and  the  infants  alike. 
In  many  cases,  as  victorious  armies  swept 
through  Poland  and  Serbia,  the  wretched 
inhabitants  fled  before  them,  literally  starving, 

because  all  food  had  been  seized  for  the  use  of  , 

Terrible 

fighting  men.  Dreadful  diseases,  which  cannot  suffering 
exist  where  people  have  the  chance  to  bathe  and 
keep  themselves  clean,  once  more  appeared, 
sweeping  away  hundreds  of  thousands  of  vic- 
tims. The  strongest,  healthiest,  bravest  men 
of  a  dozen  different  nations  were  shot  down  by 
the  millions  or  left  to  drag  out  a  miserable 
existence,  sick  or  crippled  for  life.  Silent  were 
the  wheels  in  many  factories  which  once  turned 
out  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilization. 
There  were  no  men  to  make  toys  for  the 
children,  or  to  work  for  mankind's  happiness. 
The  only  mills  and  factories  which  were  running 
full  time  were  those  that  turned  out  the  tools  of 


(12) 


The  Map  of  Europe  13 

destruction  and  shot  and  shell  for  the  guns. 
Nations  poured  out  from  fifty  to  sixty  million 
dollars  a  day  for  the  purpose  of  killing  off  the 
best  men  in  Europe.  Had  the  world  gone  mad? 
What  was  the  reason  for  it  all? 

In  1913  Germans  traveled  in  Russia  and 
Englishmen  traveled  in  Germany  freely  and 
safely.  Germans  were  glad  to  trade  with  intercourse 
Russians,  and  happy  to  have  Englishmen  spend 
their  money  in  Germany.  France  and  Austria 
exchanged  goods  and  their  inhabitants  traveled 
within  each  other's  boundaries.  A  Frenchman 
might  go  anywhere  through  Germany  and 
be  welcomed.  There  was  nothing  to  make  the 
average  German  hate  the  average  Englishman 
or  Belgian.  The  citizen  of  Austria  and  the 
citizen  of  Russia  could  meet  and  find  plenty  of 
ground  for  friendship. 

We  cannot  explain  this  war,  then,  on  the 
grounds  of  race  hatred.     One  can  imagine  that 

JN  o  private 

two  men  living  side  by  side  and  seeing  each  quarrel 
other  every  day  might  have  trouble  and  grow 
to  hate  each  other,  but  in  this  great  war  soldiers 
were  shooting  down  other  soldiers  whom  they 
had  never  seen  before,  with  whom  they  had 
never  exchanged  a  word,  and  it  would  not  profit 
them  if  they  killed  a  whole  army  of  their  oppon- 
ents. In  many  cases,  the  soldiers  did  not  see 
the  men  whom  they  were  killing.  An  officer 


14 


The   Story   of 


War  at 
long  range 


Govern- 
ment 
ordered 
slaughter 


What 
makes 
a  govern- 
ment 


with  a  telescope  watched  where  the  shells  from 
the  cannon  were  falling  and  telephoned  to  the 
captain  in  charge  to  change  the  aim  a  trifle  for 
his  next  shots.  The  men  put  in  the  projectile, 
closed  and  fired  the  gun.  Once  in  a  while,  a 
shell  from  the  invisible  enemy,  two,  three,  or 
four  miles  away,  fell  among  them,  killing  and 
wounding.  When  a  regiment  of  Austrians 
were  ordered  to  charge  the  Russian  trenches, 
they  shot  and  bayoneted  the  Russians  because 
they  were  told  to  do  so  by  their  officers,  and  the 
Russian  soldiers  shot  the  Austrians  because 
their  captains  so  ordered  them.  The  officers 
on  each  side  were  only  obeying  orders  received 
from  their  generals.  The  generals  were  only 
obeying  orders  from  the  government. 

In  the  end,  then,  we  come  back  to  the  govern- 
ments, and  we  wonder  what  has  caused  these 
nations  to  fly  at  each  other's  throats.  The 
question  arises  as  to  what  makes  up  a  govern- 
ment or  why  a  government  has  the  right  to  rule 
its  people. 

In  the  United  States,  the  government  officials 
are  simply  the  servants  of  the  people.  Practically 
every  man  in  our  country,  unless  he  is  a  citizen  of 
some  foreign  nation,  has  a  right  to  vote,  and  in 
many  of  the  states  women,  too,  have  a  voice  in 
the  government.  We,  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  can  choose  our  own  lawmakers,  can 


The  Map  of  Europe  15 

instruct  them  how  to  vote  and,  in  some  states,  Govem- 

ment  by 

can  vote  out  of  existence  any  law  that  they  the  people 
have  made  which  we  do  not  like.  In  all  states, 
we  can  show  our  disapproval  of  what  our  law- 
makers have  done  by  voting  against  them 
at  the  next  election.  Such  is  the  government 
of  a  republic,  a  "  government  of  the  people, 
by  the  people,  and  for  the  people,"  as  Abraham 
Lincoln  called  it.  In  December,  1914,  and  again, 
in  December,  1915,  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  Congress,  which  provided 
that  ojui_comitry^Biay  not  declare  war  except  by 
the^direjc^vote  j)Mts_j3eople.  Some  such  law 
wilf  probably  soon  be  passed. 

How  is  it  in  Europe?  Have  the  people  of 
Germany  or  Russia  the  right  to  vote  on  war? 
Were  they  consulted  before  their  governments 
called  them  to  arms  and  sent  them  to  fight  each 
other?  It  is  plain  that  in  order  to  understand 
what  this  war  is  about,  we  must  look  into  the 
story  of  how  the  different  governments  of  -f 
Europe  came  to  be  and  learn  why  their  peoples 
obey  them  so  unquestioningly. 

We  must  remember  that  government  by  the 
people  is  a  very  new  thing.  One  hundred  and 
thirty  years  ago,  even  in  the  United  States  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  men  had  the  right  to  new 
vote.  These  were  citizens  of  property  and 
wealth.  They  did  not  think  a  poor  man  was 


16 


The   Story   of 


Unthink- 
ing 
obedience 


"The 
Battle  of 
Blenheim' 


worth  considering.  In  England,  a  country 
which  allows  its  people  more  voice  in  the  govern- 
ment than  almost  any  other  nation  in  Europe, 
it  is  only  within  the  last  thirty  years  that  all 
men  could  vote.  There  are  some  European 
countries,  like  Russia,  where  the  people  have 
practically  no  power  at  all  and  others,  like  Aus- 
tria, where  they  have  very  little  voice  in  how 
they  shall  be  governed. 

For  over  a  thousand  years,  the  men  of  Europe 
have  obeyed  without  thinking  when  their  lords 
and  kings  have  ordered  them  to  pick  up  their 
weapons  and  go  to  war.  In  many  instances 
they  have  known  nothing  of  the  causes  of  the 
conflict  or  of  what  they  were  fighting  for. 

A  famous  English  writer  has  written  a  poem 
which  illustrates  how  little  the  average  citizen 
has  ever  known  concerning  the  cause  of  war,  and 
shows  the  difference  between  the  way  in  which 
war  was  looked  upon  by  the  men  of  old  and  the 
way  in  which  one  should  regard  it.  The  poem 
runs  as  follows: 

THE  BATTLE  OF  BLENHEIM 

It  was  a  summer  evening, 

Old  Kaspar's  work  was  done, 
And  he  before  his  cottage  door 

Was  sitting  in  the  sun, 
And  by  him  sported  on  the  green 
His  little  grandchild  Wilhelmine. 


The  Map  of  Europe  17 

She  saw  her  brother  Peterkin 
Roll  something  large  and  round, 

Which  he  beside  the  rivulet 
In  playing  there  had  found, 

He  came  to  ask  what  he  had  found 

That  was  so  large  and  smooth  and  round. 

Old  Kaspar  took  it  from  the  boy, 

Who  stood  expectant  by; 
And  then  the  old  man  shook  his  head, 

And,  with  a  natural  sigh — 
"  Tis  some  poor  fellow's  skull,"  said  he, 
"Who  fell  in  the  great  victory. 

"I  find  them  in  the  garden, 

For  there's  many  hereabout; 
And  often  when  I  go  to  plow, 

The  plowshare  turns  them  out! 
For  many  a  thousand  men,"  said  he, 
"Were  slain  in  the  great  victory." 

"Now  tell  us  what  'twas  all  about," 

Young  Peterkin  he  cries; 
And  little  Wilhelmine  looks  up 
With  wonder-waiting  eyes  — 
"Now  tell  us  all  about  the  war, 
And  what  they  fought  each  other  for." 

"It  was  the  English,"  Kaspar  cried, 
"Who  put  the  French  to  rout; 
But  what  they  fought  each  other  for 

I  could  not  well  make  out; 
But  everybody  said,"  quoth  he, 
"That  'twas  a  famous  victory. 


18  The   Story   of 

"My  father  lived  at  Blenheim  then, 

Yon  little  stream  hard  by; 
They  burnt  his  dwelling  to  the  ground, 

And  he  was  forced  to  fly; 
So  with  his  wife  and  child  he  fled, 
Nor  had  he  where  to  rest  his  head. 

"They  say  it  was  a  shocking  sight 

After  the  field  was  won  —  - 
For  many  thousand  bodies  here 

Lay  rotting  in  the  sun; 
But  things  like  that,  you  know,  must  be 
After  a  famous  victory. 

"Great  praise  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  won, 
And  our  good  Prince  Eugene." 

"Why,  'twas  a  very  wicked  thing!" 
Said  little  Wilhelmine. 

"Nay,  nay,  my  little  girl,"  quoth  he, 

"It  was  a  famous  victory. 

"And  everybody  praised  the  duke 
Who  this  great  fight  did  win." 
"But  what  good  came  of  it  at  last?" 

Quoth  little  Peterkin. 
"Why,  that  I  cannot  tell,"  said  he; 
"But  'twas  a  famous  victory." 

—  Robert  Southey. 
,   '  BJ 

)ld  Kaspar,  who  has  been  used  to  such  things 
Cui  bono?     alUhis  life,  cannot  feel  the  wickedness  and  horror 


(What  is      Of  ti^e  battle.     The  children,  on  the  other  hand, 

the  good  of  , 

it?)  'have  a  different  idea  of  war.     They  are  not 

satisfied  until  they  know  what  it  was  all  about 


The  Map  of  Europe  19 

and  what  good  came  of  it,  and  they  feel  that 
"it  was  a  very  wicked  thing."  If  the  men  in 
the  armies  had  stopped  to  ask  the  reason  why 
they  were  killing  each  other  and  had  refused  to 
fight  until  they  knew  the  truth,  the  history  of 
the  world  would  have  been  very  different. 

One  reason  why  we  still  have  wars  is  that  men 

refuse  to  think  for  themselves,  because  it  is  so  The 

tyranny  of 
much  easier  to  let  their  dead  ancestors  think  the  dead 

for  them  and  to  keep  up  customs  which  should 
have  been  changed  ages  ago.  People  in 
Europe  have  lived  in  the  midst  of  wars  or 
preparation  for  wars  all  their  lives.  There 
never  has  been  a  time  when  Europe  was  not 
either  a  battlefield  or  a  great  drill-ground  for 
armies. 

There  was  a  time,  long  ago,  when  any  man 
might  kill  another  in  Europe  and  not  be 
punished  for  his  deed.  It  was  not  thought 
wrong  to  take  human  life.  Today  it  is  not 
considered  wrong  to  kill,  provided  a  man  is 
ordered  to  do  so  by  his  general  or  his  king. 
When  two  kings  go  to  war,  each  claiming  l.ls 
quarrel  to  be  a  just  one,  wholesale  murd^i  is 
done,  and  each  side  is  made  by  its  goverr  -nt 
to  think  itself  very  virtuous  and  whoi  fied 

in  its  killing.  It  should  be  the  greai  an  of 
everyone  today  to  help  to  bring  about  lasting 
peace  among  all  the  nations. 


HHMHfc*  .•    *& 


(20) 


The  Map  of  Europe  21 

In  order  to  know  how  to  do  this,  we  must 
study  the  causes  of  the  wars  of  the  past.  We  Four 

causes 

shall  find,  as  we  do  so,  that  almost  all  wars  can  of  wars 
be  traced  to  one  of  four  causes:  (1)  the  instinct 
among  barbarous  tribes  to  fight  with  and 
plunder  their  neighbors;  (2)  the  ambition  of 
kings  to  enlarge  their  kingdoms;  (3)  the  desire 
of  the  traders  of  one  nation  to  increase  their 
commerce  at  the  expense  of  some  other  nation; 
(4)  a  people's  wish  to  be  free  from  the  control 
of  some  other  country  and  to  become  a  nation 
by  itself.  Of  the  four  reasons,  only  the  last 
furnishes  a  just  cause  for  war,  and  this  cause 
has  been  brought  about  only  when  kings  have 
sent  their  armies  out,  and  forced  into  their 
kingdoms  other  peoples  who  wished  to  govern 
themselves. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  must  foreigners  in  the  United  States  return  to 
their  native  lands  when  summoned  by  their  governments? 
(6)  How  is  it  that  war  helps  to  breed  diseases? 

(c)  Is  race  hatred  a  cause  of  war  or  a  result  of  it? 

(d)  Whom  do  we  mean  by  the  government  in  the  United 
States? 

(e)  Who  controls  the  government  in  Russia? 
(/)   Who  in  England? 

(g)  Who  in  Germany? 

(k)  Who  in  France? 

(i)  In  Southey's  poem,  how  does  the  children's  idea  of  the 
battle  differ  from  that  of  their  grandfather?  Why? 

('O  Are  people  less  likely  to  protest  against  war  if  their 
forefathers  have  fought  many  wars? 

(fc)  What  have  been  the  four  main  causes  of  war? 


CHAPTER  II 
ROME  AND  THE  BARBARIAN  TRIBES 

New  governments  in  Europe.  —  Earliest  times.  —  How 
civilization  began.  —  The  rise  of  Rome.  —  Roman  civiliza- 
tion. —  Roman  cruelty.  —  The  German  tribes.  —  The  Slavic 
tribes.—  The  Celtic  tribes.—  The  Huns  and  Moors.—  The 
great  Germanic  invasions  of  the  Roman  world. 

To  search  for  the  causes  of  the  great  war 
New  which  began  in  Europe  in  1914,  we  must  go 


govern-        far  back  into  history.     It  should  be  remembered 

merits  in 

Europe  that  many  of  the  governments  of  today  have  not 
lived  as  long  as  that  of  our  own  country.  This 
is,  perhaps,  a  new  thought  to  some  of  us,  who 
rather  think  that,  as  America  is  a  new  country, 
it  is  the  baby  among  the  great  nations.  But, 
one  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago,  when  the 
United  States  was  being  formed,  there  was  no 
nation  called  Italy;  the  peninsula  which  we 
now  know  by  that  name  was  cut  up  among  nine 
or  ten  little  governments.  There  was  no 
nation  known  as  Germany;  the  land  which  is 
in  the  present  German  empire  was  then  divided 
among  some  thirty  or  thirty-five  different 
rulers.  There  was  no  Republic  of  France; 
instead,  France  had  a  king  whose  will  was  law, 
and  the  French  people  were  cruelly  oppressed. 

22 


The  Map  of  Europe  23 

There  was  no  kingdom  of  Belgium,  no  kingdom 
of  Serbia,  of  Bulgaria,  of  Roumania.  The  years  ago 
-kingdom  of  Norway  was  part  of  Denmark. 
The  Republic  of  France,  as  we  now  know  it, 
dates  back  only  to  ,1871;  the  Empire  of  Germany 
and  the  United  Kingdom  of  Italy  to  about  the 
same  time.  The  kingdoms  of  Roumania,  Ser- 
bia, and  Bulgaria  have  been  independent  of 
Turkey  only  since  1878.  The  kingdom  of 
Albania  did  not  exist  before  1913.  Most  of 
the  present  nations  of  modern  Europe,  then,  are 
very  new.  The  troubles  which  led  to  the  great 
war,  however,  originated  in  the  dim  twilight 
of  history. 

In  the  earliest  days,  there  were  no  separate 
countries    or    kingdoms.     Men    gathered    to-  pur  savase 
gether  in  little  bands,  each  of  which  had  its  fathers 
leader.     This  leader  was  generally  chosen  be- 
cause of  his  bodily  strength  and  courage.      He 
was  the  best  fighter  of  the  tribe.     The  people 
did  not  have  any  lasting  homes.     They  moved 
around   from   place   to   place,    wherever   they 
could  find  the  best  hunting  and  fishing.     When 
two  tribes  wanted  the  same  hunting  grounds, 
they  fought,  and  the  weaker  party  had  to  give 
way.     Selfishness    was    supreme.     If    a    man  Club  law 
wanted  anything  which  belonged  to  his  weaker 
neighbor,  he  simply  beat  this  neighbor  over  the 
head  with  his  club,  and  took  it.     The  stronger 


24  The   Story   of 

tribe  attacked  the  weaker,  without  any  thought 
of  whether  or  not  its  quarrel  was  just. 

Gradually,  in  the  southern  and  warmer  parts 
of  Europe,  the  tribes  began  to  be  more  civilized. 
Beginnings  Towns  sprang  up.  Ships  were  built.  Trade 
civilization  came  to  be  one  of  the  occupations.  The  fight- 
ing men  needed  weapons  and  armor;  so  there 
grew  up  artisans  who  were  skilled  in  working 
metals.  In  Egypt  and  Syria  there  were  people 
who  had  reached  quite  a  high  degree  of  civil- 
ization, and  gradually  the  Europeans  learned 
from  them  better  ways  of  living.  First  the 
Greeks,  then  the  Etruscans  (E-trus'cans),  a 
people  who  lived  in  Italy  just  north  of  where 
Rome  now  is,  and  finally  the  southern  Italians 

learned  that  it  was  possible  to  live  in  cities, 
Change  of 

occupations  without  hunting  and  plundering.  Grazing  (the 
tending  of  flocks  of  animals)  came  to  be  the 
occupation  of  many.  The  owners  of  sheep  or 
cattle  drove  their  flocks  from  place  to  place, 
as  grass  and  water  failed  them  where  they  were. 
There  was  no  separate  ownership  of  land. 

At  last  came  the  rise  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
which,  starting  out  as  the  stronghold  of  a  little 
gang  of  robbers,  spread  its  rule  gradually  over 
all  the  surrounding  country.  By  this  time,  the 
barbarians  of  northern  Europe  had  gotten  past 

,  the    use    of    clubs    as    weapons.     They,    too, 
Bronze  and 

iron  had  learned  to  make  tools  and  arms  of  bronze, 


The  Map  of  Europe  25 

and  those  living  near  civilized,  countries  had 
obtained  swords  of  iron.     The  club,  however, 
still  remained  as  the  sign  of  authority.     The 
large  bludgeon  of  the  chief  was  carried  before 
the  tribe  as  a  sign  of  his  power  over  them.     You 
have  all  seen  pictures  of  a  king  sitting  on  his 
throne  and  holding  a  wand  or  stick  in  his  right 
hand.     It    is    interesting    to    think    that    this  Meaning 
scepter,   which  the  present  king  of  England  °?the 
carries  on  state  occasions  to  remind  his  people  scepter 
of  his  power,  is  a  relic  of  the  old,  old  days  when 
his  grandfather,  many  times  removed,  broke 
the  head  of  his  rival  for  leadership  in  the  tribe 
and  set  up  his  mighty  club  for  his  awestruck 
people  to  worship. 

The  city  of  Rome  (at  first  a  republic,  after- 
wards an  empire)   spread  its  rule  over  all  of  Beginnings 
Italy,  over  all  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  °f  the 

Roman 

Sea,  and  finally  over  all  the  countries  of  Europe  Empire 
south  and  west  of  the  rivers  Danube  and  Rhine. 
One  of  the  emperors  planted  a  colony  north  of 
the  Danube  near  its  mouth,  and  the  descendants 
of  these  colonists  are  living  in  that  same  country 
today.  They  have  not  forgotten  their  origin, 
for  they  still  call  themselves  Romans  (Roumani 
[Roo-ma'ni]),  and  talk  a  language  greatly 
resembling  the  Latin,  which  was  the  tongue 
spoken  by  the  Romans  of  old.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  this  country,  which  is  now  Roumania> 


26 


The  Story  of 


The  Map  of  Europe  27 

the  part  of  Europe  north  and  east  of  the  Danube  The 
and  Rhine  was  practically  free  from  the  Romans,  boundary 
In  this  territory,  roving  bands  wandered  around, 
driving  their  cattle  with  them  and  clearing  the 
woods  of  game. 

In  some  ways,  the  Romans  were  a   highly 
civilized  people.     They  had  schools  where  their 

Roman 

children  were  taught  to  read  and  write,  to  speak  civilization 
Greek,  and  to  work  problems  in  geometry. 
They  had  magnificent  public  buildings,  fine 
temples  and  palaces.  They  built  excellent  paved 
roads  all  over  the  southern  part  of  Europe, 
and  had  wonderful  systems  of  aqueducts 
which  supplied  their  cities  with  pure  water  from 
springs  and  lakes  miles  away.  Their  dress  was 
made  of  fine  cloth.  They  knew  how  to  make 
paper,  glass,  and  steel. 

On  the  other  hand,  they  were  a  cruel  and 
bloodthirsty  people.  Their  favorite  amusement 
was  to  go  to  shows  where  gladiators  fought,  cruelty 
either  with  each  other  or  with  wild  beasts. 
These  gladiators  were  generally  men  from 
tribes  which  had  fought  against  Rome.  They 
had  been  captured  and  brought  to  that  city, 
where  they  were  trained  to  use  certain  weapons. 
Then  on  holidays,  with  all  the  people  of  Rome 
packed  into  big  amphitheaters,  these  unfortu- 
nate captives  were  forced  to  fight  with  each 
other  until  one  man  of  each  pair  was  killed. 


THE    LAST    COMBAT    OF    THE    GLADIATORS 


The  Map  of  Europe  29 

It  occasionally  happened  that  one  gladiator 
might  be  wounded,  and  lie  helpless  on  the  sand,  gladiators 
The  spectators  would  then  shout  to  the  victor- 
ious fighter  to  take  his  knife  and  finish  what  he 
had  begun.  In  this  way  what  would  seem  to  us 
like  cold-blooded  murder  was  committed  hun- 
dreds of  times  each  year,  while  the  fairest  ladies 
and  young  girls  of  Rome  sat  and  watched  with 
eager  interest.  Thus,  although  the  Romans 
had  all  the  outward  appearance  of  being  civil- 
ized, they  were  savages  at  heart,  and  had  no 
sympathy  for  any  people  who  were  not  of  their 
own  race. 

In  the  early  days,  the  Romans  prided  them- 
selves on  their  honor.     They  scorned  a  lie  and  ?ardy»  , 

honorable 

looked  down  on  anyone  who  would  cheat  or  fighters 
deceive.  They  lived  hardy  lives  and  would  not 
allow  themselves  luxuries.  They  rather  de- 
spised the  Greeks,  because  the  latter  surrounded 
themselves  with  comforts  in  life.  The  early 
Romans  were  fighters  by  nature.  They  had  a 
certain  god  named  Janus  (our  month  January 
is  named  after  him)  and  his  temple  was  open 
only  when  they  were  engaged  in  war.  It  is  a 
matter  of  history  that  during  the  twelve 
hundred  years  from  the  first  building  of  Rome 
to  the  end  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  temple  of 
Janus  was  closed  on  but  three  occasions  and 
then  only  for  a  short  time. 


30  The   Story   of 

About  five  or  six  hundred  years  after  the 
founding  of  Rome  came  several  disastrous  wars 
which  killed  off  a  great  majority  of  her  sturdy 
fighters.  Rome  was  the  victor  in  all  of  these 
wars,  but  she  won  them  at  tremendous  cost  to 
herself.  With  the  killing  off  of  her  best  and 
bravest  men,  a  great  deal  of  the  old  time  honesty 
Decay  of  was  \os>it  Very  soon,  we  begin  to  hear  of  Roman 

Roman 

morals  governors  who,  when  put  in  charge  of  conquered 
states,  used  their  offices  only  to  plunder  the 
helpless  inhabitants  and  to  return  to  Rome  after 
their  terms  were  finished,  laden  with  ill-gotten 
gains.  Roman  morals,  which  formerly  were 
very  strict,  began  to  grow  more  lax,  and  in 
general  the  Roman  civilization  showed  signs 
of  decay. 

To  the  north  and  east  of  the  Roman  Empire 
dwelt  a  people  who  were  to  become  the  leaders 

Germans  of  the  new  nations  of  Europe.  These  were 
the  free  German  tribes,  which  occupied  the  part 
of  Europe  bounded,  roughly,  by  the  rivers 
Danube  and  Rhine,  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  the 
Carpathian  Mountains.  In  many  ways  they 
were  much  less  civilized  than  the  Romans. 
They  were  clad  in  skins  and  furs  instead  of  cloth. 
They  lived  in  rough  huts  and  tents  or  in  caves 
dug  in  the  sides  of  a  hill.  They,  too,  like  the 
Romans,  held  human  life  cheap,  and  bloodshed 
and  murder  were  common  among  them.  As 


The  Map  of  Europe  31 

a  rule,  the  men  scorned  to  work,  leaving  what- 

End 

ever  labor  there  was,  largely  to  the  women,  fighting 
while  they  busied  themselves  in  fighting  and 
hunting,  or,  during  their  idle  times,  in  gambling. 
Nevertheless,  these  people,  about  the  time  that 
the  Roman  honesty  began  to  disappear,  had 
virtues  more  like  those  of  the  early  Romans. 
They  were  frank  and  honorable.  The  men  were 
faithful  husbands  and  kind  fathers,  and  their 


GERMANS    GOING    INTO    BATTLE 


family  life  was  very  happy.  They  were  bar- 
barous and  rough,  but  those  of  them  who  were 
taken  to  Rome  and  learned  the  Roman  civil- 
ization made  finer,  nobler  men  than  Rome  was 
producing  about  the  time  of  which  we  speak. 

To  the  east  of  these  German  tribes  were  the  The  Slavs 
Slavs,  a  people  no  better  civilized,  but  not  so 
warlike  in  their  nature.     As  the  Germans,  in 
later  years,  moved  on  to  the  west,  the  Slavs, 
in  turn,  moved  westward  and  occupied  much 


32 


The   Story   of 


The  Celts 


of  the  land  which  had  been  left  vacant  by  the 
Germans. 

The  inhabitants  of  western  Europe,  that  is, 
France,  Spain,  and  the  British  Isles,  were 
largely  Celts.  In  fact,  all  Europe  could  be  said 
to  be  divided  up  among  four  great  peoples: 


A    HUN    WARRIOR 


There  were  the  Latins  in  Italy,  the  Celts  in 
western  Europe,  the  Germans  in  central  Europe, 
and  the  Slavs  to  the  east.  All  of  these  four 
families  were  distantly  related,  as  can  be  proved 
by  the  languages  which  they  spoke.  The 
Greeks,  while  not  belonging  to  any  one  of  the 


The  Map  of  Europe  33 

four,  were  also  distant  cousins  of  both  Germans 
and  Latins.  Probably  all  five  peoples  are 
descended  from  one  big  family  of  tribes. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  were,  from  time 

'  Huns  and 

to  time  invasions  01  Europe  by  other  nations  Moors 
which  did  not  have  any  connection  by  blood 
with  Celts,  Latins,  Greeks,  Germans,  or  Slavs. 
For  instance,  the  ferocious  Huns,  a  people  of  the 
yellow  race,  rushed  into  Europe  about  400  A.D., 
but  were  beaten  in  a  big  battle  by  the  Romans 
and  Germans  and  finally  went  back  to  Asia. 
Three  hundred  years  later,  a  great  horde  of  Moors 
and  Arabs  from  Africa  crossed  over  into  Europe^ 
by  way  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  at  one 
time  threatened  to  sweep  before  them  all  the 
Christian  nations.  For  several  hundred  years 
after  this,  they  held  the  southern  part  of  Spain, 
but  were  finally  driven  out. 

Let  us  now  come  back  to  the  story  of  what 
happened  in  Europe  after  the  Romans  had  con- 
quered all  the  country  south  and  west  of  the 
Danube  and  Rhine.  The  wild  tribes  of  the 
Germans  were  restlessly  roaming  through  the  ^£derin 
central  part'  of  Europe.  They  were  not  at  Germans 
peace  with  each  other.  In  fact,  constant  war 
was  going  on.  Julius  Caesar,  the  great  Roman 
general,  who  conquered  what  is  now  France  and 
added  it  to  the  Roman  world,  tells  us  that  one 
great  tribe  of  Germans,  the  Suevi  (Swe'vl), 


GAIUS   JULIUS    CAESAR 

From  a  bust  in  the  British  Museum 


The  Map  of  Europe  35 

made  it  their  boast  that  they  would  let  no  other 
tribe    live    anywhere    near    them.     About    a 
hundred  years  B.C.,  two  great  German  tribes,  TheCimbri 
the  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones,  broke  across  the  Teutones 
Rhine  and  poured  into  the  Roman  lands  in 
countless    numbers.     For    seven    years    they 
roamed  about  until  at  last  they  were  conquered 
in  two  bloody  battles  by  a  Roman  general, 
who  was  Caesar's  uncle  by  marriage.     After 
this  time,   the  Romans  tried  to  conquer  the 
country  of  the  Germans  and  they  might  have 
been  successful  but  for  a  young  German  chief 
named  Arminius.     He  had  lived  in  Rome  as  a 
young    man    and    had    learned    the    Romans' 
method  of  war;  so  when  an  army  came  against 
his  tribe,  he  taught  the  Germans  how  to  defend  *dted 
themselves.     As  a  result,  the  Roman  army  was  at  last 
trapped  in  a  big  forest  and  slaughtered,  almost 
to  a  man. 

This  defeat  ended  any  thought  that  the 
Romans  may  have  had  of  conquering  all  Ger- 
many. For  the  next  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  Germans  and  Romans  lived  apart,  each 
afraid  of  the  other.  Then  came  a  time  when 
the  Germans  again  became  the  attacking  party. 
Other  fiercer  and  wilder  peoples,  like  the  Huns, 
were  assailing  them  in  the  east  and  pushing 
them  forward.  They  finally  broke  over  the  ££*££ 
Rhine-Danube  boundary  and  poured  across  the  invasions 


36  The   Story   of 

Roman  Empire  in  wave  after  wave.  Some  of 
these  tribes  were  the  Vandals,  Burgundians, 
Goths,  Franks,  and  Lombards.  The  Roman 
Empire  went  to  pieces  under  their  savage 
attacks. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  is  it  that  after  nations  become  civilized,  people 
need  less  land  to  live  on? 

(6)  Are  barbarous  tribes  more  likely  to  engage  in  war  than 
civilized  peoples? 

(c)  Explain  why  clubs  were  the  earliest  weapons  and  why 
the  more  civilized  tribes  were  better  armed  than  the  bar- 
barians. 

(d)  Can  a  people  be  said  to  be  civilized  when  they  enjoy 
bloodshed  and  are  not  moved  by  the  sufferings  of  others? 

(e)  What  was  it  that  lowered  the  morals  of  the  Roman 
republic? 

(/)  In  what  way  were  the  Germans  better  men  than  the 
later  Romans? 

(g)  What  was  the  religion  of  the  Moors  and  the  Arabs? 
(A)  Why  did  the  German  tribes  invade  the  Roman  empire? 


CHAPTER  III 
FROM  CHIEFS  TO  KINGS 

The  early  chief  a  fighter. —  The  club  the  sign  of  power. — 
Free  men  led  by  a  chief  of  their  own  choosing. —  The  first 
slaves. —  Barbarians  conquer  civilized  nations. —  A  ruling 
class  among  conquered  people. —  All  men  no  longer  free  and 
equal. —  The  value  of  arms  and  armor. —  The  robber  chiefs. — 
How  kings  first  came. —  Treaties  between  tribes  follow  con- 
stant wars. —  Tribes  unite  for  protection  against  enemies. — 
A  king  is  chosen  for  the  time  being. —  Some  kings  refuse  to 
resign  their  office  when  the  danger  is  past. —  New  generations 
grow  up  which  never  knew  a  kingless  state. —  The  word 
"king"  becomes  sacred. 

The  chiefs  of  the  invading  tribes  knew  no 

law  except  the  rule  of  the  sword.     If  they  saw  The  end 

of  Roman 
anything   which   they   wanted,    they   took   it.  law 

Rich  cities  were  plundered  at  will.  They  did 
not  admit  any  man's  ownership  of  anything. 
In  the  old  days  when  the  tribes  were  roaming 
around,  there  was  no  private  ownership  of  land. 
Everything  belonged  to  the  tribe  in  common. 
Each  man  had  a  vote  in  the  council  of  the  tribe. 
Among  these  invaders,  as  with  all  barbarous 
tribes,  there  was  no  such  thing  as  an  absolute 
rule.  A  chief  was  obeyed  because  the  greater 
part  of  his  people  considered  him  the  best 
leader  in  war.  Often,  no  doubt,  when  a  chief 
had  lost  a  battle  and  the  majority  of  the  tribe 

37 


38 


The   Story   of 


had  lost  confidence  in  him,  he  resigned  and  let 
them  choose  a  new  chief.  (For  the  same  reason 
we  frequently  hear  today 
that  the  prime  minister,  or 
leader  of  the  government, 
of  some  European  country 
has  resigned.)  In  spite  of 
the  fact,  then,  that  the  chief 
was  stronger  than  any  other 
man  in  the  tribe,  if  the  ma- 
jority of  his  warriors  had 
combined  against  him  to 
put  another  man  in  his  place 
he  could  not  have  with- 
stood them.  Government, 
in  its  beginning,  was  based 
upon  the  consent  of  the 
governed.  All  men  in  the 
primitive  tribe  were  equal 
in  rank,  except  as  one  was  a 
better  fighter  than  another, 
and  the  chief  held  the  leadership  in  war  only 
because  the  members  of  his  tribe  allowed  him 
to  keep  it. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  these  early 

.       days,  the  people  had  no  fixed  place  of  abode. 

tribes          Their  only  homes  were  rude  huts  which  they 

could  put  up  or  tear  down  at  very  short  notice; 

and  so  when  they  heard  of  more  fertile  lands  or  a 


Govern- 
ment 
among 
barbarians 


A    PRANKISH    CHIEF 


The  Map  of  Europe  39 

warmer  climate  across  the  mountains  to  the 
south  they  used  to  pull  up  stakes  and  migrate 
in  a  body,  never  to  return.  It  was  always  the 
more  savage  and  uncivilized  peoples  who  were 
most  likely  to  migrate.  The  lands  which  they 
wished  to  seize  they  generally  found  already 
settled  by  other  tribes,  more  civilized  and 


MOVABLE    HUTS    OF   EARLY    GERMANS 


hence  more  peaceful,   occupied  in  trade  and 
agriculture,  having  gradually  turned  to  these 
pursuits  from  their  former  habits  of  hunting 
and  fighting.     Sometimes  these  more  civilized 
and  peace-loving  people  were  able,   by  their 
better  weapons  and  superior  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  fortifying,  to  beat  back  the  invasion  of  Barbarians 
the  immigrating  barbarians.     Oftener,  though,  overcome 
the  rougher,  ruder  tribes  were  the  victors,  and  civilized 


40 


The  Story  of 


settled  down  among  the  people  they  had  con- 
quered, to  rule  them,  doing  no  work  themselves, 
but  forcing  the  conquered  ones  to  feed  and 
clothe  them. 

History  is  full  of  instances  of  such  conquests, 
and  they  were  taking  place,  no   doubt,    ages 
migrations    before  the  times  from  which  our  earliest  records 
date.     The    best    examples,    however,   are  to 
be  found  in  the  invasions  of  the  Roman  Empire 


The  great 


GOTHS    ON   THE    MARCH 

by  the  Germanic  tribes  to  which  we  have 
referred  above.  The  country  between  the 
Rhine  River  and  the  Pyrenees  Mountains, 
which  had  been  called  Gaul  when  the  Gauls 
lived  there,  became  France  when  the  Franks 
conquered  the  Gauls  and  stayed  to  live  among 
them.  In  like  manner,  two  German  tribes 
became  the  master  races  in  Spain.  The  Bur- 
gundians  came  down  from  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  Sea  and  gave  their  name  to  their  new 
home  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Saone  (Son); 


The  Map  of  Europe  41 

the  Vandals  came  out  of  Germany  to  roam 
through  Spain,  finally  founding  a  kingdom  in 
Africa;  while  the  Lombards  crossed  the  Alps  to 
become  the  masters  of  the  Valley  of  the  Po, 
whither  the  Gauls  had  gone  before  them,  seven 
hundred  years  earlier. 

The  island   now  known   as   Great   Britain, 

1-1  •  Invasions 

which  was  inhabited  two  thousand  years  ago  of  Britain 


FRANKS   CROSSING   THE   RHINE 


by  the  Britons  and  Gaels,  Celtic  peoples,  was 
overrun  and  conquered  in  part  about  450  A.D. 
by  the  Saxons  and  Angles,  Germanic  tribes, 
after  whom  part  of  the  island  was  called  Angle- 
land.  (The  men  from  the  south  of  England  are 
of  the  same  blood  as  the  Saxons  in  the  German 
army,  against  whom  they  had  to  fight  in  the 
great  war.)  Then  came  Danes,  who  partially 


42 


The   Story   of 


The 
Normans 


conquered  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  and  after 
them,  in  1066  A.D.,  the  country  was  again 
conquered  by  the  Normans,  descendants  of  some 
Norsemen,  who,  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before,  had  come  down  from  Norway  and  con- 
quered a  large  territory  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  France. 

In  some  cases,  the  conquered  tribes  moved 


MEN    OF   NORMANDY    LANDING    IN   ENGLAND 

on  to  other  lands,  leaving  their  former  homes 
to  their  conquerors.  In  this  way  the  Britons 
and  Gaels  gave  up  the  greater  part  of  their  land 
to  the  Angles  and  Saxons  and  withdrew  to 
the  hills  and  mountains  of  Wales,  Cornwall, 
and  northern  Scotland.  In  other  cases,  the  con- 
quered people  and  their  conquerors  inhabited  the 
same  lands  side  by  side,  as  the  Normans  settled 
down  in  England  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 


The  Map  of  Europe  43 

In  the  early  days  of  savagery,  one  tribe  would 

frequently  make  a  raid  upon  another  neighbor- 

,    .,  ,    ,     .  .,,     .,  Beginnings 

ing  tribe  and  bring  home  with  it  some  cap-  of  slavery 

lives  who  became  slaves,  working  without  pay 
for  their  conquerors  and  possessing  no  more 
rights  than  beasts  of  burden.  (This  custom 
exists  today  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  was 
responsible  for  the  infamous  African  slave  trade. 
Black  captives  were  sold  to  white  traders 
through  the  greed  of  their  captors,  who  forgot 
that  their  own  relatives  and  friends  might  be 
carried  off  and  sold  across  the  seas  by  some  other 
tribe  of  blacks.) 

When  these  slaves  were  kept  as  the  servants 
of  their  conquerors,  their  number  was  very  small 
as  compared  with  that  of  their  masters.     When, 
on  the  other  hand,   a  tribe  settled  among  a  More 
people  whom  they  had  conquered,  they  often  ^naves 
found  themselves  fewer  in  numbers,  and  kept  masters 
their  leadership  only  by  their  greater  strength 
and  fighting  ability. 

Here  there  had  arisen  a  new  situation:   all 
men  were  no  longer  equal,  led  by  a  chief  of  their  ^^J8** 
own  choosing,  but  instead,  the  greater  part  of  men  equal 
them  now  had  no  voice  in  the  government. 
They  had  become  subjects,  working  to  earn 
their  own  living  and  also,  as  has  been  said, 
to  support  in  idleness  their  conquerors. 

This  ability  of  the  few  to  rule  the  many  and 


44 


The   Story   of 


The  value 
of  armor 


force  them  to  support  their  masters  was  in- 
creased as  certain  peoples  learned  better  than 
others  how  to  make  strong  armor  and  effective 
weapons.  Nearly  five  hundred  years  before 
the  time  of  Christ,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon 
(Mar'a  thon),  the  Greeks  discovered  that  one 
Greek,  clad  in  metal  armor  and  armed  with  a 
long  spear,  was  worth  ten  Persians  wearing 
leather  and  carrying  a  bow  and  arrows  or  a  short 


ALEXANDER    DEFEATING    THE    PERSIANS 

sword.  One  hundred  and  sixty  years  later, 
a  small  army  of  well-equipped  Macedonian 
Greeks,  led  by  that  wonderful  general,  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  defeated  nearly  forty  times 
its  number  of  Persians  in  a  great  battle  in  Asia 
and  conquered  a  vast  empire. 

In  later  times,  as  better  and  better  armor 
•was  made,  the  question  of -wealth  entered  in. 
The  chief  who  had  money  enough  to  buy  the 


The  Map  of  Europe  45 

best  arms  for  his  men  could  defeat  his  poorer 
neighbor  and  force  him  to  pay  money  as  to  a 
ruler.  Finally,  in  the  so-called  "Middle  Ages," 
before  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  one  knight, 
armed  from  crown  to  sole  in  steel,  was  worth 
in  battle  as  much  as  one  hundred  poorly-armed 
farmers  or  "  peasants"  as  they  are  called  in 
Europe. 

In  the  "Dark  Ages/'*  after  all  these  bar- 
barians that  we  have  named  had  swarmed  over  „ 

The  robber 
Europe,  and  before  the  governments  of  modern  chiefs 

times  were  fully  grown,  there  were  hundreds  of 
robber  chiefs,  who,  scattered  throughout  a 
country,  were  in  the  habit  of  collecting  tribute 
at  the  point  of  the  sword  from  the  peaceful 
peasants  who  lived  near.  This  tribute  they 
collected  in  some  cases,  regularly,  a  fixed  amount 
each  month  or  year,  just  as  if  they  had  a  right 
to  collect  it,  like  a  government  tax  collector. 
It  might  be  money  or  food  or  fodder,  or  fuel. 
The  robber  chiefs  were  well  armed  themselves 
and  were  able  to  give  good  weapons  and  armor 
to  their  men,  who  lived  either  in  the  chief's 
castle  or  in  small  houses  built  very  near  it. 
They  likewise  plundered  any  travelers  who  came 
by,  unless  their  numbers  and  weapons  made 
them  look  too  dangerous  to  be  attacked.  But  the 

*The  "Dark  Ages"  came  before  the  "Middle  Ages."  They  were  called 
"dark"  because  the  barbarians  had  extinguished  nearly  all  civilization  and 
learning. 


46 


The   Story   of 


A    KNIGHT   IN    ARMOR 


The  Map  of  Europe  47 

regular  tribute  forced  from  the  peaceful  farm- 
ers was  the  chief  source  of  their  income.  The 

robber  chief  and  his  men  lived  a  life  of  idleness  Jhe 

fighters 
when  they  were  not  out  upon  some  raid  for  as  parasites 

plunder,  and  the  honest,  industrious  peasants 
worked  hard  enough  to  support  both  their  own 
families  and  those  of  the  robbers. 

These  robber  chiefs  had  no  right  but  might. 
They  were  outlaws,  and  lived  either  in  a  country 
which  had  no  government  and  laws,  or  in  one 
whose  government  was  too  weak  to  protect  its 
people.  They  were  no  worse,  however,  than 
the  so-called  feudal  barons  who  came  after  them, 
who  oppressed  the  people  even  more,  because 
they  had  on  their  side  whatever  law  and  govern- 
ment existed  in  those  days. 

Now  let  us  stop  to  consider  how  first  there 

came  to  be  kings.     In  the  early  days  of  the  Small 

J         J  mdepen- 

human   race   and   also   in   later   days   among  dent  tribes 

barbarous  peoples,  the  land  was  very  sparsely 
settled.  The  reason  lay  in  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  men.  A  small  tribe  might  inhabit 
a  great  stretch  of  territory  through  which  they 
wandered  to  keep  within  reach  of  plenty  of 
game.  As  time  went  on,  however,  the  popu- 
lation increased,  and,  as  agriculture  took  the 
place  of  hunting,  and  homes  became  more 
lasting,  tribes  found  themselves  living  in  smaller 
and  smaller  tracts  of  land,  and  hence  nearer  to 


48  The   Story   of 

their  neighbors.     In  some  cases,  constant  fight- 
ing went  on,  just  as  Caesar  tells  us  that  two 
thousand  years  ago,  the  Swiss  and  the  Germans 
fought   almost   daily   battles   back   and   forth 
across  the  Rhine.     In  other  cases,  the  tribes 
found    it    better    for    all    concerned    to    make 
treaties  of  peace  with  their  neighbors,  and  if 
they  did  not  exchange  visits  and  mix  on  friendly 
terms,  at  least  they  did  not  attack  each  other. 
Finally,  one  day  there  would  come  to  several 
Danger        tribes  which  had  treaties  with  each   other  a 
drives          common  danger,  such  as  an  invasion  by  some 
together       horde   of   another   race   or   nation.     Common 
interest  would  drive  them  together  for  mutual 
protection,  and  the  chief  of  some  one  of  them 
would  be  chosen  to  lead  their  joint  army.     In 
this  way,  we  find  the  fifteen  tribes  of  the  Bel- 
gians uniting  against  the  Roman  army  led  by 

A      Kin^      IS 

selected  Julius  Caesar,  and  electing  as  king  over  them 
the  chief  of  one  of  the  tribes  "on  account  of  his 
justice  and  wisdom."  Five  years  later,  in  the 
year  52  B.C.,  we  find  practically  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  what  is  now  France  united  into  a  nation 
under  the  leadership  of  Vercingetorix  (Ver  sin- 
jet'o  riks)  in  one  last  effort  to  free  themselves 
from  Rome.  Five  hundred  years  later,  the 
Romans  themselves  were  driven  to  join  forces 
with  two  of  the  Germanic  tribes  to  check  the 
swift  invasion  of  the  terrible  Huns. 


The  Map  of  Europe  49 

In  some  cases,  these  alliances  were  only  for 
a  short  time  and  the  kingships  were  merely  tem- 
porary. In  other  cases,  the  wars  that  drove 
the  tribes  to  unite  under  one  great  chief  or  king  Some 

lasted  for  years  or  even  centuries,  so  that  new  Kingships 

outlive  the 
generations  grew  up  who  had  never  lived  under  wars 

any  other  government  than  that  of  a  king. 
Thus  when  the  wars  were  ended,  the  tribes 
continued  to  be  ruled  by  the  one  man,  although 
the  reason  for  the  kingship  had  ceased  to  be. 
In  the  days  of  the  Roman  republic,  from  500  to 
100  B.C.,  when  grave  danger  arose,  the  senate, 
or  council  of  elders,  appointed  one  man  who  was 
called  the  dictator,  and  this  dictator  ruled  like 
an  absolute  monarch  until  the  danger  was  past. 
Then,  like  the  famous  Cincinnatus,  he  gave  up 
the  position  and  retired  to  private  life.  The 
first  lasting  kingships,  then,  began,  as  it  were, 
by  the  refusal  of  some  dictator  to  resign  when 
the  need  for  his  rule  was  ended. 

By  this  time,  the  custom  of  choosing  the  son  Son 
J  /  m  °  succeeds 

of  a  chief  or  king  to  take  his  father's  place  was  father 
fairly  well  settled,  and  it  did  not  take  long  to 
have  it  understood  as  a  regular  thing  that  at  a 
king's  death  he  should  be  followed  by  his  oldest 
son.  Often  there  were  quarrels  and  even  civil 
wars  caused  by  ambitious  younger  sons,  who 
did  not  submit  to  their  elder  brothers  without 
a  struggle,  but  as  people  grew  to  be  more  civil- 


50 


The   Story   of 


war 

created 

kings 


ized  and  peace-loving,  they  found  it  better 
to  have  the  oldest  son  looked  upon  as  the  right- 
ful heir  to  the  kingship. 

As  kingdoms  grew  larger,  and  more  and  more 
forget*  that  Pe°ple  came  to  be  busied  in  agriculture,  trade, 
and  even,  on  a  small  scale,  in  manufacture,  the 
warriors  grew  fewer  in  proportion,  and  people 
began  to  forget  that  the  king  was  originally 
only  a  war  leader,  and  that  the  office  was  created 
through  military  need.  They  came  to  regard 
the  rule  of  the  king  as  a  matter  of  course  and 
stopped  thinking  of  themselves  as  having  any 
right  to  say  how  they  should  be  governed. 
Kings  were  quick  to  foster  this  feeling.  For 
the  purpose  of  making  their  own  positions  sure, 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  impressing  it  upon 
their  people  that  the  kingship  was  a  divine 
institution.  They  proclaimed  that  the  office  of 
king  was  made  by  the  gods,  or  in  Christian 
nations,  by  God,  and  that  it  was  the  divine  will 
that  the  people  of  the  nations  should  be  ruled 
by  kings.  The  great  Roman  orator,  Cicero 
(Sis'ero),  in  a  speech  delivered  in  the  year 
66  B.C.,  referring  to  people  who  lived  in  king- 
doms, says  that  the  name  of  king  "  seems  to 
them  a  great  and  sacred  thing."  This  same 
feeling  has  lasted  through  all  the  ages  down 
to  the  present  time,  and  the  majority  of  the 
people  in  European  kingdoms,  even  among  the 


The  word 
"king"  is 
venerated 


The  Map  of  Europe  51 

educated  classes,  still  look  upon  a  king  as  a 
superior  being,  and  are  made  happy  and  proud 
if  they  ever  have  a  chance  to  do  him  a  service 
of  any  sort. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  was  it  that  in  barbarian  tribes  there  was  no 
private  ownership  of  land? 

(6)  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  government  was  based 
upon  the  consent  of  the  governed? 

(c)  Was    there    anything   besides   love   of    plunder    that 
induced  the  German  tribes  to  move  southward? 

(d)  Explain  the  beginnings  of  slavery. 

(e)  Explain  the  value  of  armor  in  early  times. 
(/)   What  is  meant  by  the  "Dark  Ages"? 

(g)  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  the  fighting  men  were 
parasites? 

(h)  When  the  first  kings  were  chosen  was  it  intended  that 
they  should  be  rulers  for  life? 

(i)    Is  it  easy  for  a  man  in  power  to  retain  this  power? 

(j)   Why  is  it  that  most  Europeans  bow  low  before  a  king? 


CHAPTER  IV 


The  land 
is  the 
king's 


The  king 
lends  to 
the  barons 


MASTER   AND   MAN 

The  land  is  the  king's. —  He  lends  it  to  barons. —  Barons 
lend  it  to  knights  and  smaller  barons. —  Smaller  barons 
collect  rent  for  it  from  the  peasants. —  A  father's  lands  are  lent 
to  his  son. —  Barons  pay  for  the  land  by  furnishing  men  for 
the  king's  wars. —  No  account  is  taken  of  the  rights  of  the 
peasant. —  The  peasant,  the  only  producer,  is  despised  by  the 
fighting  men. —  If  a  baron  rebels,  his  men  must  rebel  also. — 
Dukes  against  kings. —  What  killed  the  feudal  system. — • 
Feudal  wrongs  alive  today. 

When  one  great  tribe  or  nation  invaded  and 
conquered  a  country,  as  the  Ostrogoths  came 
into  Italy  in  the  year  489  A.D.,  or  as  the  Nor- 
mans entered  England  in  1066,  their  king  at 
once  took  it  for  granted  that  he  owned  all  the 
conquered  land.  In  some  cases,  he  might 
divide  the  kingdom  up  among  his  chiefs,  giving 
a  county  to  each  of  forty  or  fifty  leaders. 
These  great  leaders  (dukes  or  barons,  as  they 
were  called  in  the  Norman-French  language, 
or  earls,  as  the  English  named  them)  would  in 
turn  each  divide  up  his  county  among  several 
less  important  chiefs,  whom  we  may  call  lesser 
or  little  barons.  Each  little  baron  might  have 
several  knights  and  squires,  who  lived  in  or  near 
his  castle  and  had  received  from  him  tracts  of 

52 


The  Map  of  Europe 


53 


A   NORMAN    CASTLE    IN    ENGLAND 


land  corresponding  in  size,  perhaps,  to  the 
American  township  and  who,  therefore,  fought 
under  his  banner  in  war. 

Each  baron  had  under  him  a  strong  body 
of  fighting  men,  "men-at-arms,"  as  they  were  Themen 
called,  or  " retainers,"  who  in  return  for  their  at-arms 
"keep,"  that  is,  their  food  and  lodging,  and  a 
chance  to  share  the  plunder  gained  in  war, 
swore  to  be  faithful  to  him,  became  his  men, 
and    gave    him    the    service    called    homage. 


54  The   Story   of 

(This  word  comes  from  homo,  the  Latin  for 
"man.")  The  lesser  baron,  in  turn,  swore 
homage  to,  and  was  the  "man"  of  the  great 
baron  or  earl.  Whenever  the  earl  called  on 
these  lesser  chiefs  to  gather  their  fighting  men 
and  report  to  him,  they  had  to  obey,  serving 
him  as  unquestioningly  as  their  squires  and 
retainers  obeyed  them.  The  earl  or  duke  swore 
homage  to  the  king,  from  whom  he  had  received 
his  land. 

This,  then,  was  the  feudal  system  (so  named 
The  king,  from  the  word  feudum,  which,  in  Latin,  meant 
people6  is  a  piece  °f  land  the  use  of  which  was  given  to  a 
the  foun-  man  in  return  for  his  services  in  war) ,  a  system 

dation  of 

society  which  reversed  the  natural  laws  of  society,  and 
stood  it  on  its  apex,  like  a  cone  balanced  on  its 
point.  For  instead  of  saying  that  the  land  was 
the  property  of  the  people  of  the  tribe  or  nation, 
it  started  by  taking  for  granted  that  the  land 
all  belonged  to  the  king.  The  idea  was  that 
the  king  did  not  give  the  land,  outright,  to 
his  dukes  and  earls,  but  that  he  gave  them,  in 
return  for  their  faithful  support  and  service  in 
war,  the  use  of  the  land  during  their  lifetime, 
or  so  long  as  they  remained  true  to  him.  In 
Macbeth,  we  read  how,  for  his  treason,  the 
lands  of  the  thane  (earl)  of  Cawdor  were  taken 
'from  him  by  the  Scottish  king  and  given  to  the 
thane  of  Glamis.  The  lands  thus  lent  were 


The  Map  of  Europe  55 

called  fiefs.  Upon  the  death  of  the  tenant, 
they  went  back  to  the  king  or  duke  who  had 
given  them  in  the  first  place,  and  he  at  once 
gave  them  to  some  other  one  of  his  followers 
upon  the  same  terms.  It  often  happened  that  A  father»s 
upon  the  death  of  an  earl  or  baron  his  son  was  Jands  are. 

lent  to  the 

granted  the  lands  which  his  father  had  held,  oldest  son 
Finally,  in  many  counties,  it  grew  into  a 
custom,  and  the  oldest  son  took  possession  of 
his  father's  fief,  but  not  without  first  going 
to  the  king  and  swearing  homage  and  fidelity 
to  him. 

Two  things  must  be  kept  in  mind  if  we  are  to 
understand  the  system  fully.  In  the  first 
place,  in  the  division  of  the  lands  among  the 
barons  of  the  conquering  nation,  no  account 
was  taken  of  the  peasants.  As  they  were  of  the 
defeated  people,  their  rights  to  the  land  were  The 
not  once  considered.  In  many  countries,  the 
victors  thought  of  them  as  part  and  parcel  rights 
of  the  conquered  territory.  They  "went  with" 
the  land  and  were  considered  by  the  lord  of  the 
county  as  merely  his  servants.  When  one  lord 
turned  over  a  farm  to  another,  the  farmers  were 
part  of  the  bargain.  If  any  of  them  tried  to 
run  away,  they  were  brought  back  and  whipped. 
They  tilled  the  land  and  raised  live  stock, 
giving  a  certain  share  of  their  yearly  crop  and  a 
certain  number  of  beeves,  hogs,  sheep,  etc.,  to 


(56) 


The  Map  of  Europe  57 

the  lord,  as  rent  for  the  land,  much  as  the  free 
farmers  in  other  countries  paid  tribute  to  the 
robber  chieftains.  Thus  the  one  class  of  people 
who  really  earned  their  right  to  live,  by  pro- 
ducing wealth,  were  oppressed  and  robbed  by 
all  the  others.  Note  this  point,  for  there  are 
wrongs  existing  today  that  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  feudal  system  is  not  wholly  stamped 
out  in  some  countries. 

In  the  second  place,  it  must  be  noted  that 
the  king  was  not  the  direct  master  of  all  the  A  curious 
people.  .  Only  the  great  lords  had  sworn  homage  scheme  of 
to  him.     He  was  lord  of  the  dukes,  earls,  and  ment 
barons.     The    less    important    barons    swore 
homage  to  the  great  barons,  and  the  knights, 
squires,  retainers,  and  yeomen  swore  homage 
to  the  lesser  barons.     If  a  lesser  baron  had  sub- 
divided  his   fief   among   certain   knights   and 
squires,    the    peasants    owed    allegiance,    not 
to  him,  but  to  the  squire  to  whom  they  had  been 
assigned.     Thus,  if  a  "man"  rebelled  against 
his  lord,  all  of  his  knights,  retainers,  etc.,  must 
rebel  also.     If,  for  instance,  a  great  duke  refused 
to  obey  his  king  and  broke  his  oath  of  allegiance, 
all  his  little  barons  and  knights  must  turn  dis- 
loyal too,  or  rather,  must  remain  loyal,  for  their 
oaths  had  been  taken  to  support  the  duke,  and 
not  the  king.     History  is  full  of  such  cases.  ^^|t 
In  many  instances,  dukes  became  so  powerful  kings 


58 


The   Story   of 


William 

conquers 

England 


that  they  were  able  to  make  war  on  even  terms 
with  kings.  The  great  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
for  a  time  kept  the  kings  of  France  in  awe  of 
their  power;  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  in 
1403  raised  an  army  that  almost  overthrew 
King  Henry  Fourth  of  England;  the  Duke  of 
York,  in  1461,  drove  Henry  Sixth  from  the 
throne  of  Eng- 
land and  became 
king  in  his  place. 
A  strange  case 
arose  when,  in 
1066,  William, 
who  as  duke  of 
Normandy  had 
sworn  homage 
to  the  king  of 
France,  became, 
through  con- 
quest, king  of 

England.  His  sons,  great-grandsons,  and 
great-great-grandsons  continued  for  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  to  be  obliged  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  French  kings  in  order  to  keep 
the  duchy  of  Normandy.  It  was  as  if  the 
Governor  of  Texas  had  led  an  army  into  Mexico, 
conquered  it,  and  become  Emperor  of  that 
country,  without  resigning  his  governorship  or 
giving  up  his  American  citizenship. 


WILLIAM    THE    CONQUEROR 


The  Map  of  Europe  59 

Two  things  which  tended  to  break  down  the 
feudal  system  and  bring  more  power  to  the  What 
common  people  were,   first,   the  invention  of  killed  the 
gunpowder,  and,  second,  the  rise  of  towns.     A  system 
man  with  a  musket  could  bring  down  a  knight 
in  armor  as  easily  as  he  could  the  most  poorly 
armored  peasant.     Kings,  in  fighting  to  control 
their  great  lords,  gave  more  freedom  to  citizens 
of  towns  in  return  for  their  help.      The  king's 
armies    came    to    be    recruited    largely    from 
townspeople,  who  were  made  correspondingly 
free  from  the  feudal  lords. 

The  rule  of  the  feudal  system,  that  each  man 
owed  a  certain  amount  of  military  service  to  his  A  feudal 

•  rule  alive 

ruler  has  lasted  to  the  present  day  and  is  today 
responsible  for  much  of  the  misery  that  now 
exists.  Kings  went  to  war  with  each  other 
simply  to  increase  their  territories.  The  more 
land  a  king  had  under  his  control,  the  more 
people  who  owed  him  taxes,  and  the  greater 
number  he  could  get  into  his  army,  the  greater 
became  his  ambition  to  spread  his  kingdom 
still  farther. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  How  was  it  that  the  king  of  a  tribe  could  claim  to  own 
all  the  land  in  the  country  which  he  had  invaded? 

(6)  Did  the  kings,  lords,  and  fighting  men  contribute 
anything  to  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes? 

(c)  Would  the  peasants  have  been  better  off  if  all  the  fight- 
ing men,  lords,  dukes,  kings,  etc.,  had  suddenly  been  killed? 


60  The   Story   of 

(d)  Can  you  see  why  in  some  countries  in  Europe  a  man  who 
earns  his  living  is  looked  down  upon  by  the  nobles? 

(e)  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  the  feudal  system  turns 
society  upside  down? 

(/)   Why  did  the  farmers  continue  to  feed  the  fighting  men? 

(g)  Explain  how  the  use  of  gunpowder  in  warfare  helped  to 
break  up  the  feudal  system. 

(/i)  How  did  the  rise  of  cities  also  help  to  do  away  with  the 
feudal  system? 


CHAPTER  V 
A  BABEL  OF  TONGUES 

The  great  family  of  languages. —  Few  languages  in  Europe 
not  belonging  to  the  family. —  The  dying  Celtic  languages. — 
The  three  branches  of  the  Germanic  family. —  The  influence 
of  the  Latin  tongue  on  the  south  of  Europe. —  The  many 
Slavic  peoples. —  The  map  as  divided  by  kings  without 
regard  to  peoples  and  languages. —  The  strange  mixture  in 
Austria-Hungary. —  The  southeast  of  Europe. —  The  Greeks 
and  Dacians.  —  The  Roman  colonists. —  The  Slavs. —  The 
Volgars. —  The  Skipetars. —  A  hopeless  mixture. 

In  Chapter  II  it  was  pointed  out  that  almost 
all  the  peoples  of  Europe  were  related,  in  one 
big  family  of  tribes.  It  is  likely  that  the 
forefathers  of  the  Celts,  the  Latins,  the  Ger- 
mans, the  Greeks,  and  the  Slavs  belonged  to  one 
big  tribe  which  had  its  home  back  in  the  high- 
lands of  Central  Asia.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
relationship  of  peoples  to  each  other  can  be 
told  by  the  languages  which  they  speak.  If 
two  tribes  are  related  because  their  forefathers 
once  belonged  to  the  same  tribe,  it  is  almost  Relation- 
certain  that  they  will  show  this  relationship  in  ^ 
their  languages.  language 

The  language  of  England  a  thousand  years 
ago  was  very  much  like  the  language  of  the 
Germans,  for  the  English  were  originally  Ger- 

61 


62 


The   Story   of 


English 
a  Germanic 
tongue 


The  great 
family 


man  tribes.  Even  today,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
English  is  a  Germanic  language.  Take  the 
English  words  house,  father,  mother,  brother, 
water,  here,  is,  etc.  The  German  words  which 
mean  the  same  are  haus,  vater,  mutter,  bruder, 
wasser,  hier,  ist.  It  is  very  plain  that  the  two 
languages  must  have  come  from  the  same 
source. 

There  are  professors  in  European  colleges  who 
have  spent  their  whole  lives  studying  this 
relationship  of  languages.  These  men  have 
proved  not  only  that  almost  all  the  languages  of 
Europe  are  related,  but  that  the  language  of 
the  Persians,  and  that  of  some  of  the  old  tribes  in 
Hindustan  also  belong  to  one  great  family 
of  tongues.  Let  us  take  the  word  for  mother. 
In  one  of  the  ancient  languages  of  Hindustan  it 
was  matr;  in  the  Greek,  it  was  matar;  in  the 
Latin  mater  (matar) ;  in  the  Bohemian  matka; 
in  the  German  mutter;  in  the  Spanish  madre; 
in  the  Norwegian  moder,  etc.  This  great 
family  of  languages  is  called  "the  Indo-Euro- 
pean group,"  because  the  tribes  which  spoke 
them,  originally  inhabitants  of  Asia,  have  scat- 
tered all  over  India  and  Europe.  The  only 
peoples  in  Europe  whose  languages  do  not  belong 
to  it  are  the  Finns  and  Laplanders  of  the  north, 
the  Basques  (Basks)  of  the  Pyrenees  Mountains, 
the  Hungarians,  the  Gypsies,  and  the  Turks. 


The  Map  of  Europe  63 

The  descendants  of  the  old  Celtic  peoples 
have  not  kept  up  the  Celtic  languages  to  any 
great  extent.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  first  °f 
the  Romans  and  then  the  Germanic  tribes  con-  tongues 
quered  most  of  the  lands  where  the  Celts  lived. 
In  this  way,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  and 
Belgium  now  talk  languages  that  have  grown 
from  the  Latin,  the  language  of  Rome. 
The  Celts  in  the  British  Isles  now  alt  talk 
English,  because  the  English,  who  were  a 
Germanic  people,  conquered  them  and  forced 
them  to  use  their  language.  Patriotic  Irish- 
men and  Welshmen  (who  are  descendants  of 
the  Celtic  tribes)  are  trying  to  keep  alive  the 
Irish  and  Welsh  languages,  but  all  of  the  young 
people  in  the  British  Isles  learn  English,  and 
they  are  generally  content  to  talk  only  one 
language.  The  other  Celtic  languages  which 
have  existed  within  the  last  one  hundred  years 
are  the  Gaelic  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  the 
Breton  of  western  France,  and  the  Cornish  of 
the  southwestern  corner  of  England. 

The  Germanic  languages  (sometimes  called 
Teutonic)  are  found  in  three  parts  of  Europe  JP^^^ 
today.     The  Scandinavian  languages,  Danish,  languages 
Norwegian,  and  Swedish,  belong  to  this  family. 
Western    Austria    and    Germany    form,    with 
Holland  and  Western  Belgium,  a  second  group 
of  German-speaking  nations.     (The  people  of 


64 


The   Story   of 


The  Latin 
tongues 


The 

Slavonic 

languages 


Greek  and 
Albanian 


eastern  Belgium  are  Celts  and  talk  a  kind  of 
French.)  The  third  part  of  Europe  which  uses 
a  Germanic  language  is  England. 

In  an  earlier  chapter  we  learned  how  the 
Celts  in  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  gave  up 
their  own  languages  and  used  the  Latin.  Latin 
languages  today  are  found  also  in  the  southern 
and  western  parts  of  Switzerland,  all  over  Italy, 
and  in  Roumania. 

We  learned  also  about  the  Slavs  who  lived 
to  the  eastward  of  the  Germanic  tribes.  When 
the  Germans  moved  west,  these  Slavs  followed 
them  and  occupied  the  lands  which  had  just 
been  left  vacant.  In  this  way,  we  find  Slavic 
peoples  talking  Slavic  (sometimes  called  Slav- 
onic) languages  in  the  parts  of  Europe  to  the 
east  and  south  of  the  Germans.  More  than 
half  of  the  inhabitants  of  Austria-Hungary 
are  Slavs,  although  the  Austrians  proper  are  a 
Germanic  people,  and  the  Hungarians  do  not 
belong  to  the  Indo-European  family  at  all. 
The  Serbians  and  Montenegrins  are  Slavs.  The 
Poles  and  Russians  are  Slavs.  The  Bulgarians 
speak  a  Slavic  language  and  have  some  Slavic 
blood  in  them,  although,  as  will  be  pointed 
out  later,  originally  they  did  not  belong  to 
the  Slavic  family. 

'The  Greeks  and  Albanians  belong  to  the  great 
Indo-European  family  of  tribes,  but  their 


The  Map  of  Europe 


65 


66 


The   Story   of 


I  I 


,      '          zoo 

i 


g         - 


The  Map  of  Europe  67 

languages  are  not  closely  related  to  any  of  the 
four  great  branches. 

The  two  maps  on  pages  65  and  66  are  very 
much   alike   and  yet   in   some   respects   very  „ 

The  two 

different.  The  first  shows  how  Europe  is  largely  maps 
inhabited  by  peoples  of  the  great  Indo- 
European  family.  Those  who  are  descended 
from  the  Celts  are  marked  Celtic  even  though 
today  they  have  given  up  their  Celtic  language, 
as  have  the  Cornish  in  England  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  Spain,  France,  eastern  Belgium,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Ireland.  The  Bulgarians 
are  marked  as  not  belonging  to  the  great 
family,  although  they  speak  a  Slavic  language. 
In  the  second  map,  the  distribution  of  lan- 
guages is  shown.  You  will  notice  that  the 
Celtic  languages  are  found  only  in  small  parts  of 
the  British  Isles,  and  in  the  westernmost  point 
of  France.  The  Bulgarians  are  here  marked 
Slavic  because  their  language  belongs  to  that 
branch.  One  of  the  most  curious  things  about 
the  two  maps  is  the  presence  of  little  spots  like 
islands,  particularly  made  up  of  German- 
speaking  peoples.  There  are  several  of  these 
little  islands  in  Russia.  They  have  been  there 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years.  A  traveler 
crossing  the  southern  part  of  Russia  is  aston- 
ished to  find  districts  as  large  as  an  American 
county  where  not  a  word  of  Russian  is  spoken. 


68 


The   Story   of 


THE    INDO-EUROPEAN    FAMILY    OF    LANGUAGES 


(a)  Hindu  branch 

(b)  Persian  branch 


(c)  Celtic  branch 


(d)  Latin  branch  • 


(e)   Germanic  branch  < 


(/)    Slavonic 
branch 


Gae'lic  (northern  Scotland) 

Welsh 

Cornish  (dead) 

Erse  (Irish) 

Bre'ton  (western  France) 

Portuguese 

Spanish 

French 

Romansh  (southeastern  Switzerland) 

Italian 

Roumanian 

Norwegian 

Danish 

Swedish 

Dutch 

Flemish  (Belgium) 

Low  German 

High  German 

English 

Russian 
Polish          ^ 

Lettish         >Baltic  states  of  Russia 
Lithuanian/ 
Old  Prussian  (dead) 
Czech  (Bohemian  [pronounced  Che"ck]  ) 
Slovak7 (northern  Hungary) 
Serbian 
Bulgarian 

Slove'nian  (southwestern  Austria) 
Croa'tian  (southern  Austria) 
Ruthe'nian    (northeastern    Austria-Hungary 
and  southwestern  Russia) 


(gY  Greek 
(h)  Albanian 


The  Map  of  Europe  69 

The  people  are  all  of  Germanic  blood,  although 
they  live  under  the  government  of  Russia. 
In  the  same  way,  there  is  a  large  German  island  isolated 

German- 

in  the  midst  of  the  Roumanians  in  Transylvania  speaking 
and  another  between  the  Slovaks  and  Poles  at  nities 
the  foot  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains.     There 
is  a  large  Hungarian  island  in  Transylvania 
also,    entirely    surrounded    by    Germans    and 
Roumanians.     The  table  on  the  opposite  page 
shows  the  main  branches   of  the   Indo-Euro- 
pean family  that  are  found  in  Europe. 

The  main  source  of  the  present  trouble  in 
Europe  is  that  kings  and  their  ministers  and 
generals,  like  their  ancestors,  the  feudal  lords, 
never  considered  the  wishes  of  the  people  when 
they    changed    the    boundaries    of    kingdoms.  Kins- 
Austria-Hungary    is    a    good    example.     The  maps 
Austrians    and    Hungarians    were    two    very 
different  peoples.     They  had  nothing  in  com- 
mon and  did  not  wish  to  be  joined  under  one 
ruler,  but  a  king  of  Hungary,  dying,  left  no  son 
to  succeed  him,   and  his  only  daughter  was 
married    to    the    archduke    of    Austria.     This 
archduke    of    Austria    (a    descendant    of    the  ofh\£s^ 
counts  of  Hapsburg)  was  also  emperor  of.  Ger-  Hungary 
many    and    king  of    Bohemia,    although    the 
Bohemian  people  had  not  chosen  him  as  their 
ruler.     The   Hungarians,   before    their    union 
with    Austria,   had    conquered    certain    Slavic 


70  The   Story   of 

tribes-  and  part  of  the  Roumanians.  Later 
Austria  annexed  part  of  Poland,  in  this 
way,  the  empire  became  a  jumble  of  lan^ 
guages  and  nationalities.  When  its  congress 
is  called  together,  the  official  announcement  is 
read  in  eleven  different  languages.  Forty-one 
different  dialects  are  talked  in  an  area  not  as 
large  as  that  of  the  state  of  Texas. 

We  must  remember  that  besides  the  literary 
Dialects  vs.  or  written  languages  of  each  country  there  are 
languages  several  spoken  dialects.  A  man  from  Devon- 
shire, England,  meeting  a  man  from  Yorkshire 
in  the  north  of  the  same  country,  has  difficulty 
in  understanding  many  words  in  his  speech. 
The  language  of  the  south  of  Scotland  also  is 
English,  although  it  is  very  different  from  the 
English  that  we  in  America  are  taught.  A 
Frenchman  from  the  Pyrenees  Mountains 
was  taught  in  school  to  speak  and  read  the 
French  language  as  we  find  it  in  books.  Yet 
besides  this,  he  knows  a  dialect  that  is  talked 
by  the  country  people  around  him,  that  can 
not  be  understood  by  the  peasants  from  the 
north  of  France  near  the  Flemish  border. 
The  man  who  lives  in  the  east  of  France  can 
understand  the  dialect  of  the  Italians  from  the 
west  of  Italy  much  better  than  he  can  that  of 
the  Frenchman  from  the  Atlantic  coast. 

In    America,    with    people    moving    around 


The  Map  of  Europe  71 

from  place  to  place  by  means  of  stage  coach, 
steamboat,  and  railroad,  there  has  been  no 
great  chance  to  develop  dialects,  although  we 
can  instantly  tell  the  New  Englander,  the  south- 
erner, or  the  westerner  by  his  speech.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  Europe,  for  centuries,  the 
people  were  kept  on  their  own  farms  or  in  their 
own  towns.  The  result  of  this  was  that  each  lit-  Each 
tie  village  or  city  has  its  own  peculiar  language.  village 
It  is  said  that  persons  who  have  studied  such  language 
matters  carefully,  after  conversing  with  a  man 
from  Europe,  can  tell  within  thirty  miles  where 
his  home  used  to  be  in  the  old  country.  There 
are  no  sharply  marked  boundaries  of  languages. 
The  dialects  of  France  shade  off  into  those  of 
Spain  on  the  one  hand  and  into  those  of  the 
Flemish  and  the  Italian  on  the  other. 

The  British  Isles  furnish  us  with  four  or  five 
different  nationalities.     The  people  of  the  north  p^0eples 
of  Ireland  are  really  lowland  Scotch  of  Germanic  £f  .t^et_ 

British 

descent,  while  the  other  three-fourths  of  Ireland  isles 
is  inhabited  by  Celts.  To  make  the  difference 
all  the  greater,  the  Celts  are  almost  universally 
Catholics,  while  the  Scotch-Irish  are  Protes- 
tants. The  people  of  the  north  of  Scotland 
are  Gaels,  a  Celtic  race  having  no  connection 
in  language  or  blood  with  the  people  of  the 
southern  half  of  that  country.  The  Welsh 
are  a  Celtic  people,  and  have  little  sympathy 


72 


The   Story   of 


<  O  » 
W  OS  o 


I 
1     I 

i    j 


The  Map  of  Europe  73 

with  the  English,  who  are  a  Germanic  people. 
The  Welsh  and  the  Cornish  of  Cornwall  and 
the  people  of  highland  Scotland  are  the  descend- 
ants  of  the  ancient  Britons  and  Gaels  who 
inhabited  the  island  when  Julius  Caesar  and  the  British 
Romans  first  landed  there.  Then  five  hundred 
years  afterwards,  as  has  already  been  told,  came 
great  swarms  of  Germans  (Angles,  Saxons,  and 
Jutes),  who  drove  the  Britons  to  the  west  and 
north,  and  settled  the  country  now  known  as 
England.  After  these,  you  will  recall,  came  a 
number  of  Danes,  another  Germanic  people, 
who  settled  the  east  coast  of  England.  Two  hun- 
dred years  later,  the  Normans  came  from 
France.  These  Normans  had  been  living  in 
France  for  a  century  or  two,  but  had  come  origi- 
nally from  Norway.  Normans,  Danes,  Angles, 
and  Saxons  all  mixed  to  make  the  modern  Eng- 
lish. Together,  they  fought  the  Scotch,  the 
Welsh,  and  the  Irish,  and  having  conquered 
them,  oppressed  them  cruelly  for  many  centuries. 
But  it  is  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Europe 
that  one  finds  the  worst  jumble  of  nationalities. 
Six  hundred  years  before  Christ,  the  Greeks 
and  their  rougher  cousins,  the  Thracians, 

Macedonians,  and  Dacians  inhabited  this  dis-  Th®  . 

seething 

trict.     When    one    of    the    Roman    Emperors  Balkans 
conquered  the   Dacians   about   100  A.D.,  (see 
page  25)  he  planted  a   large   Roman   colony 


74 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  75 

north  of  the  Danube  River.  Then  came  the 
West  Goths,  who  swept  into  this  country,  but 
soon  left  it  for  the  west  of  Europe.  Next  came 
the  Slavic  tribes  who  are  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Serbs.  Following  these,  came  a  large 
tribe  which  did  not  belong  to  the  Indo-European 
family,  but  was  distantly  related  to  the  Finns 
and  the  Turks.  These  people  were  called  the  The  people 

from  the 

Yolgars,  for  they  came  from  the  country  around  Volga 
the  River  Volga.  Before  long,  we  find  them 
called  the  Bulgars.  (The  letters  B  and  V  are 
often  interchanged  in  the  languages  of  south- 
eastern Europe.  The  people  of  western  Europe 
used  to  call  the  country  of  the  Serbs  Servia, 
but  the  Serbs  objected,  saying  that  the  word 
servio,  in  Latin,  means  "to  be  a  slave,"  and 
that  as  they  were  not  slaves,  they  wanted  their 
country  to  be  called  by  its  true  name,  Serbia. 
The  Greeks,  on  the  other  hand,  pronounce  the 
letter  B  as  though  it  were  V.) 

A  strange  thing  happened  to  the  Volgars  or 
Bulgars.      They    completely    gave    up    their  A^unous 
Asiatic  language  and  adopted  a  new  one,  which  language 
became  in  time  the  purest  of  the  Slavic  tongues. 
They  intermarried  with  the  Slavs  around  them 
and  adopted  Slavic  names.     They  founded  a 
flourishing  nation  which  lay  between  the  king- 
dom of  Serbia  and  the  Greek  Empire  of  Con- 
stantinople. 


A  Latin 
island 
among  the 
Slavs 


76 


The   Story   of 


North  of  the  Bulgars  lay  the  country  of  the 
Roumani  (roo  ma'ni).  These  people  claimed 
to  be  descended  from  the  Roman  Emperor's 
colonists,  as  was  previously  told,  but  the  reason 
their  language  is  so  much  like  the  Italian  is 


A   TYPICAL   BULGARIAN   FAMILY 

that  a  large  number  of  people  from  the  north 
of  Italy  moved  into  the  country  nearly  a  thou- 
sand years  after  the  first  Roman  colonists 
settled  there.  From  900  to  1300  A.D.,  south- 
eastern Europe  was  inhabited  by  Serbians, 
Bulgarians,  Roumanians,  and  Greeks. 

A  fifth  people  perhaps  ought  to  be  counted 
here,  the  Albanians.  (See  map,  p.  74.)  This 
tribe  is  descended  from  the  Illyrians,  who  inhab- 
ited the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  even 
before  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Their 


The  Map  of  Europe  77 

language, 'like  the  Greek,  is  a  branch  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  which  is  neither  Latin,  Celtic, 
Germanic,  nor  Slavic.     They  are  distant  cousins  The 
of  the  Italians  and  are  also  slightly  related  to  untamed 

oKipetars 

the  Greeks.  They  are  a  wild,  fierce,  uncivil-  of  Albania 
ized  people,  and  have  never  known  the  meaning 
of  law  and  order.  Robbery  and  warfare  are 
common.  Each  village  is  always  fighting  with 
the  people  of  the  neighboring  towns.  The 
Albanians,  or  Skipetars  (sk'ip'e  tars)  as  they 
call  themselves,  were  Christians  until  they  were 
conquered  by  the  Turks  about  1460.  Since 
that  time,  the  great  majority  of  them  have  been 
staunch  believers  in  the  Mohammedan  relig- 
ion. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Where  did  the  great  Indo-European  family  of  languages 
have  its  beginning? 

(6)  Why  is  it  that  the  Celtic  languages  are  dying  out? 

(c)  What  killed  the  Celtic  languages  in  Spain  and  France? 

(d)  What  are  the  three  parts  of  Europe  where  Germanic 
languages  are  spoken? 

(e)  In  what  parts  of  Europe  are  languages  spoken  which  are 
descended  from  the  Latin? 

(/)    Explain  the  presence  in  Austria-Hungary  of  eleven 
different  peoples? 

(g)  Are  the  Bulgarians  really  a  Slavic  people? 


CHAPTER  VI 
"THE  TERRIBLE   TURK" 

The  Greek  Empire  at  Constantinople. —  The  invading 
Mohammedans. —  The  Ottoman  Turks. —  The  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople.—  The  enslaving  of  the  Bulgars,  Serbs,  Greeks, 
Albanians,  and  Roumanians. —  One  little  part  of  Serbia 
unconquered. —  The  further  conquests  of  the  Turks. —  The 
attack  on  Vienna. —  John  Sobieski  to  the  rescue. —  The  waning 
of  the  Turkish  empire. —  The  Spanish  Jews. —  The  jumble  of 
languages  and  peoples  in  southeastern  Europe. 

In  the  last  chapter,  we  referred  briefly  to  the 
division  Greek  empire  at  Constantinople.  This  city 
of  the  was  originally  called  Byzantium,  and  was  a 

Empire  flourishing  Greek  commercial  center  six  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ.  Eleven  hundred 
years  after  this,  a  Roman  emperor  named 
Constantine  decided  that  he  liked  Byzantium 
better  than  Rome.  Accordingly,  he  moved  the 
capital  of  the  empire  to  the  Greek  city,  and 
renamed  it  Constantinopolis  (the  word  polis 
means  "city"  in  Greek).  Before  long,  we  find 
the  Roman  empire  divided  into  two  -parts, 
the  capital  of  one  at  Rome,  of  the  other  at  Con- 
stantinople. This  eastern  government  was 
continued  by  the  Greeks  nearly  one  thousand 
years  after  the  government  of  the  western 
78 


The  Map  of  Europe  79 


THE  TURKISH  SULTAN  BEFORE  CONSTANTINOPLE 

empire  had  been  seized  by  the  invading  Ger- 
manic tribes. 

For  years,  this  Greek  empire  at  Constanti- 
nople had  been  obliged  to  fight  hard  against 
the  Mohammedans  who  came  swarming  across 

fertile  plains  of  Mesopotamia  (mes'o  po  ta'-  Turks 
mi  a)   and  Asia  Minor.    (Mesopotamia  is  the 
district  lying  between  the  Tigris  (ti'gris)  and 


80  The  Story  of 

Euphrates  (u  fra/tez)  Rivers.  Its  name  in 
Greek  means  "  bet  ween  the  rivers.")  The 
fiercest  of  the  Mohammedan  tribes,  the  warlike 
Ottoman  Turks,  were  the  last  to  arrive.  For 
several  years,  they  thundered  at  the  gates  of 
Constantinople,  while  the  Greek  Empire  grew 
feebler  and  feebler. 

At  last  in  1453,  their  great  cannon  made  a 
breach  in  the  walls,  and  the  Turks  poured 
through.  The  Greek  Empire  was  a  thing  of  the 
past,  and  all  of  southeastern  Europe  lay  at  the 
mercy  of  the  invading  Moslems  (another  name 
for  "Mohammedans").  The  Turks  did  not 
drive  out  the  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Serbians,  and 
Albanians,  but  settled  down  among  them  as  the 
ruling,  military  class.  They  strove  to  force 
these  peoples  to  give  up  Christianity  and  turn 
Mohammedans,  but  were  successful  only  in 
the  case  of  the  Skipetars  of  Albania.  The 
Albanians,  Serbians,  Bulgarians,  Greeks,  and 
conquests  Roumanians  remained  where  they  had  been, 
but  were  oppressed  by  the  newcomers. 

For  more  than  two  hundred  years  after  the 
capture  of  Constantinople,  the  Turks  pushed 
their  conquests  farther  and  farther  into  Europe. 
The  entire  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  fell  into  their 
hands.  All  of  Greece,  all  of  Bulgaria,  and  all  of 
Roumania  became  part  of  their  empire.  Of  the 
kingdom  of  Serbia,  one  small  province  remained 


The  Map  of  Europe  81 

unconquered.     Up  in  the  mountains  near  the 
coast  of  the  Adriatic  gathered  the  people  of  one 
county  of  the  Serbian  kingdom.     As  the  Turks 
attacked  them,  they  retreated  higher  and  higher  One  part  of 
up  the  mountain  sides  and  rolled  huge  stones  Serbia 

&  uncon- 

down  upon  the  invaders.  Finally,  the  Turks  quered 
became  disgusted,  and  concluded  that  "the 
game  was  not  worth  the  candle."  Thus  the 
little  nation  of  Montenegro  was  formed,  com- 
posed of  Serbians  who  never  submitted  to  the 
Ottoman  rule.  (The  inhabitants  of  this  small 
country  call  it  Tzernagorah  (tzer  na  go'ra); 
the  Italians  call  it  Montenegro.  Both  of  these 
names  mean  "Dark  Mountain.") 

Not  satisfied  with  these  conquests,  the  Turks 
pushed  on,  gaining  control  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  About  1682,  they 
were  pounding  at  the  forts  around  Vienna.  The 
heroic  king  of  Poland,  John  Sobieski  (so  bi  es'ki),  ™££d 
came  to  the  rescue  of  the  Austrian  emperor  with  rescue 
an  army  of  Poles  and  Germans  and  completely 
defeated  the  Turks.  He  saved  Vienna,  and 
ended  any  further  advance  of  the  Turkish  rule 
into  Europe.  (The  map  on  page  82  shows  the 
high  water  mark  of  the  Turkish  conquests.) 

It /must   be   remembered   that   the   original 

inhabitants  of  the  conquered  lands  were  still 

ving  where  they  always  had  lived.     The  Turks 

were  very  few  in  number  compared  with  the 


82 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  83 

millions  of  people  who  inhabited  their  empire 
and  paid  them  tribute.  Many  wars  were 
caused  by  this  conquest,  but  it  was  two  hundred  Jhe.  tide 

begins  to 

and  thirty  years  before  the  Christian  peoples  ebb 
won  back  their  territory. 

By  the  year  1685,  the  Hungarians  had  begun 
to  win  back  part  of  their  kingdom.  By  1698, 
almost  all  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania  was 
free  from  Turkish  rule.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  a  certain  Count  of  Hapsburg  had  become 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  when  we  say  Ger- 
many, we  include  Austria,  which  had  become 
the  home  of  the  Hapsburgs.  It  was  shortly 
after  this  that  the  Hapsburg  family  came  to  be 
lords  of  Hungary  also,  through  the  marriage 
of  one  of  their  emperors  with  the  only  daughter 
of  the  king  of  that  country. 

In  this  way,  when  the  province  of  Bukowina 

TVi 

and  the  territory  known  as  the  Banat,  just 


north  of  the  Danube  and  west  of  what  is  now  ^pire  of 
Roumania,  were  reconquered  from  the  Turks,  Hapsburgs 
it  was  the  joint  kingdom  to  which  they  were 
attached.     (Bukowina  has  never  been  a  part 
of  Hungary.     It  is  still  a  crown  land,  or  county 
subject  to  the  emperor  of  Austria  personally.) 
During  the  15th  century,  the  southeastern 
Europe  came  to  be  inhabited  by  a  still 


different  people.     Not  long  after  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,   the  king  and  queen  of  Spain,   had 


84 


The  Story  of 


Spanish 
intolerance 


Another 
people 
added  to 
the  Balkan 
mixture 


Salonika 
and 

Constanti- 
nople 


conquered  the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada 
(see  Chapter  II)  that  used  to  stretch  across  the 
southern  half  of  Spain,  the  Spaniards  decided 
to  drive  out  of  their  country  all  " unbelievers/' 
that  is,  all  who  were  not  Christians  of  the 
Catholic  faith.  (This  happened  in  1492,  the 
same  year  that  they  sent  Columbus  to  America.) 
The  Moors  retreated  into  Africa,  which  was 
their  former  home,  but  the  millions  of  Spanish 
Jews  had  no  homeland  to  which  to  return.  In 
the  midst  of  their  distress,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
knowing  them  to  be  prosperous  and  well- 
behaved  citizens,  invited  them  to  enter  his 
land.  They  did  so  by  hundreds  of  thousands. 

The  descendants  of  these  people  are  to  be 
found  today  throughout  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
though  mainly  in  the  large  cities.  They  are  so 
numerous  in  Constantinople  that  four  news- 
papers are  published  there  in  the  Spanish 
language,  but  printed  in  Hebrew  characters. 
The  city  of  Salonika,  a  prosperous  seaport  of 
140,000  people,  which  used  to  belong  to  Turkey 
but  now  is  part  of  Greece,  has  over  50,000  of 
these  Jews.  They  readily  learn  other  tongues, 
and  many  of  them  can  talk  in  four  or  five  lan- 
guages besides  their  native  Spanish,  which  they 
still  use  in  the  family  circle. 

Constantinople  (called  Stamboul  by  the 
Turks)  is  a  polyglot  city,  that  is,  a  place  of  many 


The  Map  of  Europe 


85 


A  SCENE  IN  SALONIKA 


languages.     Greeks,   Turks,  Armenians,  Jews, 
Italians  are  all  found  mingled  together. 

The  main  source  of  trouble  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula  is  that  the  races  and  nationalities 
are  so  jumbled  together  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  say  which  land  should  belong  to  Ambitions 
which  nation.  Take  the  case  of  Macedonia  conflict 
(the  district  just  northwest  of  the  Aegean 
Sea).  It  is  inhabited  largely  by  Bulgarians, 
and  yet  there  are  so  many  Greeks  and  Serbs 
mixed  in  with  the  former  that  at  the  close  of  the 
last  Balkan  ^var  in  1913,  Greece  and  Serbia 
both  claimeg  it  as  belonging  to  them  because 
of  ttie^^prevailing  nationality  of  its  inhabi- 
tants!" In  other  words,  the  Serbians  claimed 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Macedonia  were  largely 


86  The   Story   of 

Serbs,  the  Greeks  were  positive  that  its  people 
were  largely  Greeks,  while  Bulgaria  is  very 
resentful  today  because  the  land  was  not  given 
to  her,  on  the  ground  that  almost  all  its  inhabi- 
tants are  Bulgarians! 

Religious    and   racial   hatreds   have   had    a 
great    deal    to    do    with    making   the    Balkan 
peninsula  a  hotbed  of  political  trouble.     Right 
in  the  center  of  Bulgaria,  for  example,  speaking 
the  same  language,  dressing  exactly  alike,  doing 
business  with  each  other  on  an  equal  footing, 
are  to  be  found  the  native  Bulgarian  and  the 
Religion       descendant  of  the  Turkish  conquerors;  yet  one 
toefriemi-r    goes  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  to  worship 
ship  and  the  other  to  the  Mohammedan  Mosque. 

With  memories  of  hundreds  of  years  of  wrong 
and  oppression  behind  them,  Bulgarians  and 
Turks  hate  and  despise  each  other  with  a  fierce 
intensity.  Let  us  now  leave  the  Balkan  states, 
with  their  seething  pot  of  racial  and  religious 
hatred,  and  turn  to  other  causes  of  European 
wars. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  became  of  the  Greeks  when  the  Turks  captured 
Constantinople? 

(6)  Why  could  one  county  of  Serbia  resist  the  Turks? 

(c)  How  long  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  were  the 
Turks  threatening  Vienna? 

(d)  Explain  how  Constantinople  has  people  of  so  many 
different  nationalities. 

(e)  Why  have  the  Turk  and  Bulgarian  never  been  friendly? 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  RISE   OF  MODERN  NATIONS 

How  the  peasants  looked  upon  war. —  War  the  opportunity 
of  the  fighting  men. —  The  decreasing  power  of  barons. —  The 
growth  of  royal  power. —  How  four  little  kingdoms  became 
Spain. —  Other  kingdoms  of  Europe. —  The  rise  of  Russia. — 
The  Holy  Roman  Empire. —  The  electors. —  The  rise  of 
Brandenburg. —  The  elector  of  Brandenburg  becomes  King 
of  Prussia. —  Frederick  the  Great. —  The  seizure  of  Silesia 
and  the  consequent  wars. 

You  have  already  been  shown  how  in  the  early 
days  of  the  feudal  system,  the  lords,  with  their 
squires,  knights,  and  fighting  men  made  up  a 
class  of  the  population  whose  only  trade  was 
war,  and  how  the  poor  peasants  were  compelled 
to  raise  crops  and  live  stock  enough  to  feed  both 
themselves  and  the  fighting  men.  These  peas-  The 

P  6  3.  S  3.  n  t  S 

ants  had  no  love  for  war,  as  war  resulted  only  pay 
in  their  losing  their  possessions  in  case  their 
country  was  invaded  by  the  enemy.  The 
fighting  men,  on  the  other  hand,  had  nothing 
to  do  unless  war  was  going  on,  and  as  those  who 
were  not  killed  returned  from  a  war  with  rich 
plunder  ni  case  they  were  victorious,  they  were 
always  locking  for  a  chance  to  start  trouble 
with  some  neighboring  country. 

87 


88 


The   Story   of 


Honest 
work 

scorned  by 
the 
fighters 


In  those  days,  kings  cared  little  what  their 
nobles  did,  so  long  as  the  nobles  furnished  them 
with  fighting  men  in  times  of  wa'r.  As  a  result, 
one  county  in  a  certain  kingdom  would  often 
be  at  war  with  a  neighboring  county.  The 
fighting  man  either  was  killed  in  battle  or  he 
came  out  of  it  with  increased  glory  and  plunder, 
but  the  peasants  and  the  common  people 
had  nothing  to  gain  by  war  and  everything 
to  lose.  As  we  have  seen,  force  ruled  the  world, 
and  the  common  people  had  no  voice  in  their 
government.  The  workers  were  looked  down 
upon  by  the  members  of  the  fighting  class, 
who  never  did  a  stroke  of  work  themselves  and 
considered  honest  toil  as  degrading.  In  fact, 
as  one  writer  has  said,  the  only  respectable  trade 
in  Europe  in  those  days  was  what  we  today 
would  call  highway  robbery. 


Down  with 
barons  ;  up 
with  kings 


FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND  IN  THE  15TH  CENTURY 

Gradually  in  most  of  the  European  countries 
^e  j^mg  was  ^\Q  to  put  down  the  power  of 

his  nobles  and  make  himself  master  over  the 
whole  nation.  In  this  way  a  strong  central 
power  grew  up  in  France.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1477,  no 
'noble  dared  to  question  the  leadership  of  the 
king  of  France.  The  same  thing  was  true  in 


The  Map  of  Europe  89 

England  after  the  battle  of  Bosworth  in  1485, 
which  resulted  in  the  death  of  King  Richard  III 
and  the  setting  of  the  Tudor  family  on  the 
throne. 

SPAIN  AND  OTHER  KINGDOMS 

"*  Spain  had  been  divided  into  four  little 
kingdoms:  Leon,  Castile,  Aragon,  and  Gra- 
nada,  the  latter  ruled  by  the  Moors.  The  nation 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  to  Isabella 
of  Castile  and  Leon  joined  the  three  Christian 
kingdoms  into  one,  and  after  1492,  when  the 
Moors  were  defeated  and  Granada  annexed  to 
the  realm  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Spain 
became  one  kingdom.^-  About  this  time,  also, 
there  had  grown  up  a  strong  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary, a  kingdom  of  Portugal,  a  kingdom  of 
Poland,  and  one  of  Denmark.  Norway  was 
ruled  by  the  Danes,  but  Sweden  was  a  separate 
kingdom.  ---In  Russia,  Czar  Ivan  the  Terrible  . 
(1533-84)  had  built  up  a  strong  power  which  was  of  Russia 
still  further  strengthened  by  Czar  Peter  the 
Great  (1690-1725). 

THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

The  rest  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  with  the 
exceptiorTofxthe  Turkish  Empire,  formed  what .  The  Holy 
was  called  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 'a  rule  Roman 
which    had    been    founded    by    Charlemagne  Germany 


90 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  91 

(A.D.  800),  the  great  Frankish  monarch,  who 
had  been  crowned  in  Rome  by  the  pope  as 
ruler  of  the  western  world.  (The  name  "Holy 
Roman  Empire"  was  not  used  by  Charlemagne. 
We  first  hear  of  it  under  Otto  I,  the  Saxon 
emperor,  who  was  crowned  in  962.) 
.  This  Holy  Roman  Empire  included  all  of  . 

r/xtent  or 

what  is  now  Germany  (except  the  eastern  the  empire 
third  of  Prussia),  all  of  what  is  now  Bohemia, 
Austria  (but  not  Hungary),  and  all  of  Italy 
except  the  part  south  of  Naples.  There  were 
times  when  part  of  France  and  all  of  the  low 
countries  (now  Belgium  and  Holland)  also 
belonged  to  the  Empire.  (The  mountain- 
eers of  Switzerland  won  their  independence  from 
the  Empire  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
formed  a  little  republic.)  _See  map  "  Europe 
in  1540." 

In  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  son  of  the 
emperor  did  not  necessarily  succeed  his  father  as  _. 
ruler.  There  were  seven  (afterwards  nine)  electors 
"electors"  who,  at  the  death  of  the  ruling  mon- 
arch, met  to  elect  his  successor.  Three  of  these 
electors  were  archbishops,  one  was  king  of 
Bohemia,  and  the  others  were  counts  of  large 
countiesin-Cc^rmany  like  Hanover  and  Branden- 
burg. It  frequently  happened  that  the  candi- 
date chosen  was  a  member  of  the  family  of  the 
dead  emperor,  and  there  were  three  or  four 


92 


The   Story   of 


A  weak 
state 


LOUIS    XIV 

families  which  had  many  rulers  chosen  from 
among  their  number.  The  most  famous  of 
these  families  was  that  of  the  Counts  of  Haps- 
burg,  from  whom  the  present  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria is  descended. 

This  Holy  Roman  Empire  was  not  a  strong 
government,  as  the  kingdoms  of  England  and 
France  grew  to  be.  The  kings  of  Bohemia, 


\ 


\ 


Boundaries   of   ihe    Hoiy 
Roman   Empire  •    ^ 

Lands    of   the   Hapsburg 
Family  in    Red 

1.  Spain 

2.  Kingdom   of  Sardinia 

3.  Kingdom    of  the   Two  Sicilies 

4.  The   Netherlands 

5.  The  Free  County   of  Burgundy 

6.  Bohemia 

7.  Austria 

8.  Silesia 

9.  Part    of    Hungary  never 
conquered  by  the   Turks 

10.  The  Duchy  of   Milan 

11.  The  Kingdom    of  France 

12.  The  Kingdom    of  England 

13.  The  Kingdom   of  Scotland 

14.  The  Kingdom   of  Denmark 

15.  The  Kingdom  of  Norway 

16.  The  Kingdom   of  Sweden 

17.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Finland 

(Controlled  by  Sweden) 

18.  Lands  of    the  German   Knights 
of    Livonia 

19.  Russia 

20.  The   Kingdom  of    Poland 
and    Lithuania 

21.  Empire  of  the  Ottoman   Turks 

22.  Montenegro 

23.  Republic  of   Venice 

24.  Lands  of  Genoa 

25.  States  of  the  Church 

26.  Little  German  States 

27.  Switzerland 

28.  Portugal 


France 


The  Map  of  Europe  93 

Saxony,  and  Bavaria  all  were  subjects  of  the 
emperor,  as  were  many  powerful  counts. 
These  men  were  jealous  of  the  emperor's  power, 
and  he  did  not  dare  govern  them  as  strictly  as 
the  king  of  France  ruled  his  nobles. 

FRANCE  IN  THE  18TH  CENTURY 

During  the  18th  century,  there  were  many 
wars  in  Europe  caused  by  the  ambition  of  var- 

ious  kings  to  make  "The, 

'  Grand 

their  domains  larger  Monarch" 
and  to  increase  their 
own  incomes.  King 
Louis  XIV  of  France 
had  built  up  a  very 
powerful  kingdom. 
Brave  soldiers  and 
skillful  generals 
spread  his  rule  over 
a  great  part  of  what 
is  Belgium  and  Lux- 
emburg, and  an- 
nexed to  the  French 
kingdom  the  part  of  Germany  between  the 
Rhine  River  and  the  Vdsges  (Vozh)  Mountains. 
Finally,  the  English  joined  with  the  troops  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  TO  curb  the  further 
growth  of  the  French  kingdom,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Blenheim  (1704),  the  English  Duke  of  Marl- 


JOHN    CHURCHILL,    DUKE    OF 
MARLBOROUGH 


94 


The   Story  of 


* 


THE    GREAT   ELECTOR    OF   BRANDENBURG 


The  Map  of  Europe  95 

borough,  aided  by  the  emperor's  army,  put  an 
end  to  the  further  expansion  of  the  French. 

PRUSSIA 

The  18th  century  also  saw  the  rise  of  a  new 
kingdom  in  Europe.  You  will  recall  that  there 
was  a  county  in  Germany  named  Brandenburg, 
whose  count  was  one  of  the  seven  electors  who 
chose  the  emperor.  The  capital  of  this  county 


was  Berlin.  It  so  happened  that  a  number  of 
Counts  of  Brandenburg,  of  the  family  of  burg 
Hohenzollern,  ha^i  been  men  of  ambition  and 
ability,  the  little  county  had  grown  by  adding 
small  territorielTaround  it,  as  shown  on  the  map 
on  page  99.  \  One  of  these  counts,  called  "the 
Great  Elector,"  had  added  to  Brandenburg 
the  greater  part  of  the  neighboring  county  of 
Pomerania.  His  son  did  not  have  the  ability 
of  his  father,  but  was  a  very  proud  and  vain 
man.  He  happened  to  visit  King  William  III  An 
of  England,  and  was  very  much  offended 
because  during  the  interview,  the  king  occupied  results 
a  comfortable  arm  chair,  while  the  elector, 
being  simply  a  count,  was  given  a  chair  to  sit 
in  which  was  straight-backed  and  had  no  arms. 
Brooding  over  this  insuit.  as  it  seemed  to  him, 
he  went  home  and  decided  that  he  too  should 
be  called  a  king.  The  question  was,  what 
should  his  title  be.  He  could  not  call  himself 


96 


The  Story  of 


FREDERICK   THE    GREAT 


"King  of  Brandenburg/'  for  Brandenburg  was 
part  of  the  Empire,  and  the  emperor  would 
not  allow  it.  It  had  happened  some  one  hun- 
dred years  before,  that,  through  his  marriage 


The  Map  of  Europe  97 

with  the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Prussia,  a 
Count  of  Brandenburg  had  come  into  possession 
of  the  district  known  as  East  Prussia,  at  the 
extreme  southeastern  corner  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 
Between  this  and  the  territory  of  Brandenburg 
lay  the  district  known  as  West  Prussia,  which 
was  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland.  However, 
Prussia  lay  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  Empire, 
and  the  emperor  had  nothing  to  say  about  what 
went  on  there.  Therefore,  the  elector  sent  , 

A  new 

notice  to  alljJae^  kings  and  princes  of  Europe  kingdom 
that  after  /this  he  was  to  be  known  as  the 
"King  of  [Prussia/'  It  was  a  situation  some- 
what like  the/tine  we  have  already  referred  to, 
when  the  kirigs  of  England  were  independent 
monarchs  and  yet  subjects  of  the  kings  of 
France  because  they  were  also  dukes  of 
Normandy. 

The  son  of  this  elector  who  first  called  himself 
king  had  more  energy  and  more  character  than 
his  father.  He  ruled  his  country  with  a  rod  of 
iron,  and  built  up  a  strong,  well-drilled  army. 
He  was  especially  fond  of  tall  soldiers,  and  had 
agents  out  all  over  Europe,  kidnapping  men  who 
were  over  six  feet  tall  to  serve  in  his  famous 
regiment  of  Guards.  'He^iurther  increased  the 
size  of  the  Prussian  kingdom.  The  best_ 


His  son  was  the  famous  Frederick  the  Great, 

'    Hohen- 

one  of  the  most  remarkable  fighters  that  the  zoiiem 


98  The   Story   of 

world  has  ever  seen.  This  prince  had  been 
brought  up  under  strict  discipline  by  his  father. 
The  old  king  had  been  insistent  that  his  son 
should  be  no  weakling.  It  is  told  that  one  day, 
finding  Frederick  playing  upon  a  flute,  he  seized 
father  the  instrument  and  snapped  it  in  twain  over 
his  son's  shoulder.  The  young  Frederick,  under 
this  harsh  training,  became  a  fit  leader  of  a 
military  nation.  When  his  father  died  and 
left  him  a  well-filled  treasury  and  a  wonder- 
fully drilled  army,  he  was  fired  with  the  am- 
bition to  spread  his  kingdom  wider.  Germany, 
as  has  been  said,  was  made  up  of  a  great  many 
little  counties,  each  ruled  by  its  petty  prince 
or  duke,  all  owing  homage,  in  a  general  way, 
to  the  ruler  of  Austria,  who  still  was  supposed 
to  be  the  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
This  empire  was  not  a  real  nation,  but  a  col- 
lection of  many  different  nationalities  which  had 

Divided  J 

Austria  little  sympathy  with  each  other.  The  ruler  of 
Austria  was  also  king  of  Bohemia  and  of 
Hungary,  but  neither  country  was  happy  at 
being  governed  by  a  German  ruler.  Then,  too, 
the  Croatians,  Serbs,  Slovenes,  and  Slovaks 
were  unhappy  at  being  ruled,  first  by  the 
Hungarians  and  then  by  the  emperor,  as  they 
were  Slavic  peoples  who  wished  their  indepen- 
dence. It  so  happened  that  about  the  time  that 
Frederick  became  king  of  Prussia  in  place  of  his 


The  Map  of  Europe 


99 


100  The   Story   of 

father,  the  head  of  the  House  of  Austria  died, 
leaving    his    only    child,    a    daughter,    Maria 
Theresa,    to   rule   the   big   empire.     Frederick 
decided  that  he  could  easily  defeat  the  dis- 
Might          organized  armies  of  Austria,  so  he  announced 
right  to  the  world  that  the  rich  province  of  Silesia 

was  henceforth  to  be  his  and  that  he  proposed 
to  take  it  by  force  of  arms.  Naturally,  this 
brought  on  a  fierce  war  with  Austria,  but  in  the 
end,  Frederick's  well-trained  troops,  his  store 
of  money,  and  above  all,  his  expert  military 
ability  made  the  Prussians  victorious,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  fighting,  almost  all  of  Silesia 
remained  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. 
The  Austrians,  however,  were  not  satisfied, 
and  two  more  wars  were  fought  before  they 
finally  gave  up  trying  to  recover  the  stolen 
state.  Frederick  remained  stronger  than  ever 
as  a  result  of  his  victories. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  were  the  fighting  men  of  the  Middle  Ages  a  source 
of  loss  to  a  nation  in  general? 

(6)  How  was  it  that  Spain  became  one  nation? 

(c)  What  did  Peter  the  Great  do  for  Russia? 

(d)  Why  did  the  Emperor  have  less  power  than  many  kings? 

(e)  What  was  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV  of  France? 

(/)   What  effect  had  the  training  of  his  father  upon  the 
character  of  Frederick  the  Great? 

(g)  Had  Frederick  the  Great  any  right  to  Silesia? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE   FALL  OF   TWO   KINGDOMS 


The  Poles,  a  divided  nation. —  The  three  partitions. — 
Wars  and  revolts  as  a  result. —  The  disappearance  of  Lith- 
uania.—  The  growing  power  of  the  king  of  France. —  An 
extravagant  and  corrupt  court. —  Peasants  cruelly  taxed  and 
oppressed. —  Bankruptcy  at  last. —  The  meeting  of  the  three 
estates.— The  third  estate  defies  the  king.— The  fall  of  the 
Bastille. —  The  flight  and  capture  of  the  king. —  The  king 
beheaded. —  Other  kings  alarmed. —  Valmy  saves  the  revo- 
lution.—  The  reign  of  terror. 


In  the  flat  country  to  the  northeast  of 
Austria-Hungary  and  east  of  Prussia  lay  the  The  Poles 
kingdom  of  Poland,  the  largest  country  in 
Europe  with  (the  exception  of  Russia.  The 
Poles,  as  has  been  said  before,  were  a  Slavic 
people,  distant  cousins  of  the  Russians  and 
Bohemians.  They  had  a  strong  nobility  or 
upper  class,  but  these  nobles  were  jealous  of  each 
other,  and  as  a  result,  the  country  was  torn 
apart  by  many  warring  factions.  The  condition 
of  the  working  class  was  very  miserable.  The  Divided 
nobles  did  not  allow  them  any  privileges,  we  fall 
They  were  serfs,  that  is  to  say,  practically 
slaves,  who  had  to  give  up  to  their  masters  the 
greater  part  of  the  cropB^that  they  raised.  In 
the  council  of  the  Polish  nobles,  no  law  could  be 

101 


102  The -.Story   of 

passed  if  a  single  nobleman  opposed  it.  As  a 
result  of  this  jealousy  between  factions,  the 
Poles  could  not  be  induced  to  obey  any  one 
leader,  and  thus,  divided,  were  easy  to  conquer. 
Frederick  the  Great,  regretting  the  fact  that 

.    .  , ,    he  was  separated  from  his  land  in  East  Prussia 
Frederick's 

proposal  by  the  county  of  West  Prussia,  which  was  part 
of  Poland,  proposed  to  his  old  enemy,  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and  to  the  Empress  Cathar- 
ine II  of  Russia  that  they  each  take  a  slice  of 
Poland.  This  was  accordingly  done,  in  the 
year  1772.  Poor  Poland  was  unable  to  resist 
the  three  great  powers  around  her,  and  the  other 
kings  of  Europe,  who  had  been  greedily  annex- 
ing land  wherever  they  could  get  it,  stood  by 
without  a  protest.  Some  twenty  years  later, 
Prussia  and  Russia  each  again  annexed  a  large 
part  of  the  remainder  of  Poland,  and  two  years 
A  reat  a^er  ^S'  the  three  powers  divided  up  among 
crime  them  all  that  was  left  of  the  unhappy  kingdom. 

The  Poles  fought  violently  against  this  last 
partition,  but  they  were  not  united  and  were 
greatly  outnumbered  by  the  troops  of  the  three 
powers. 

This  great  crime  against  a  nation  was  the 
result  of  the  military  system;  and  this  in  turn 
was  the  result  of  the  feudal  system,  which  made 
the  king,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army, 
the  supreme  ruler  of  his  country.  The  men  in 


The  Map  of  Europe 


103 


CATHARINE    II 


Victory  Rulefs»  not 
people, 


the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  had  no  desire 

to  fight  and  conquer  the  poor  Poles. 

meant  nothing  to  them.     They  gained  no  ad-  to  blame 

vantage  from  it.     To^the^fcings  who  divided  up 

the  countries  it  simply  meant,  an  enlargement  of 


104 


The   Story   of 


The  result: 
Bloodshed 
and  misery 


their  kingdoms,  more  people  to  pay  taxes 
to  them,  and  more  men  to  draw  on  for  their 
armies. 

Instead  of  crushing  out  the  love  of  the  Poles 
for  their  country,  this  wrongful  tearing  apart 
has  made  their  national  spirit  all  the  stronger. 
There  have  been  revolts  and  bloody  wars, 
caused  by  Polish  uprisings,  time  and  time  again, 
and  the  Poles  will  never  be  satisfied  until  their 
unhappy  country  is  once  more  united. 

To  the  northeast  of  the  Poles  live  the  Lithu- 
anians, whose  country  had  been  annexed  to 
the  Polish  kingdom  when  their  duke,  who  had 
married  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Poland, 
followed  his  father-in-law  on  the  Polish  throne. 
Lithuania  fell  to  Russia's  share  in  the  division, 
so  that  its  people  only  changed  masters.  They 
are  a  distinct  nation,  however,  possessing  a 
language  and  literature  of  their  own,  and 
having  no  desire  to  be  ruled  by  either  Poles  or 
Russians.  If  they  were  to  receive  justice, 
they  would  form  a  country  by  themselves, 
lying  between  Poland  and  Russia  proper. 

THE  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  FRENCH  MONARCHY 

In  the  meantime,  a  great  change  had  come 

about  in  France.     There,  for  hundreds  of  years, 

Th    k'    '    ^e  Power  °f  the  king  had  been  growing  greater, 

will  is  law  until  by  the  eighteenth  century,  there  was  no 


Another 
nation 
disappears 
from  the 
map 


The  Map  of  Europe 


105 


one  in  the  country  who  could  oppose  him. 
He  had  great  fortresses  and  prisons  where  he 
sent  those  who  had  offended  him,  shutting 
them  up  without  a  trial  and  not  even  letting 

their  families  know 
where  they  had  been 
taken.  The  peasants 
and  working  classes 
had  been  ground  down 
under  taxes  which  grew 
heavier  and  heavier. 
The  king  spent  mil- 
lions of  dollars  on  his 
palaces,  on  his  armies, 
on  his  courts.  Money 
was  stolen  by  court  misery 
officials.  Paris  was  the 
gayest  capital  in  the 
world,  the  home  of 
fashion,  art,  and  fri- 
volity—  and  the  poor 
peasants  paid  the  bills. 
For  years,  there  had 

been  mutterings.  The  people  were  ripe  for 
a  revolt,  but  they  had  no  weapons,  and  there 
was  no  one  to  lead  them.  At  last,  came  a  time 
when  there  was  no  money  in  the  royal  treasury. 
After  all  the  waste  andrtjorruption,  nothing  was 
left  to  pay  the  army  and  keep  up  the  expenses 


COURTIER    OF    TIME    OF 
LOUIS   XIV 


106 


The   Story   of 


A  bankrupt 
nation 


THE    TAKING    OF    THE    BASTILLE 

of  the  government.  One  minister  of  finance 
after  another  tried  to  devise  some  scheme 
whereby  the  country  might  meet  its  debts,  but 
without  success.  The  costly  wars  and  wasteful 
extravagances  of  the  past  hundred  years  were 
at  last  to  bring  a  reckoning.  In  desperation, 
the  king  summoned  a  meeting  of  representa- 
tive men  from  all  over  the  kingdom.  There 
were  three  classes  represented,  the  nobles,  the 
clergy,  and  what  was  called  "the  third  estate," 

At  last—      which  meant  merchants,  shopkeepers,  and  the 

a  leader  of 

the  people    poor  gentlemen.    A  great  statesman  appeared,  a 

man  named  Mirabeau.  Under  his  leadership, 
the  third  estate  defied  the  king,  and  the  temper 


The  Map  of  Europe 


107 


of  the  people  was  such  that  the  king  dared  not 

force  them  to  do  his  will.    In  the  midst  of  these  The  fau  of 

exciting  times,  a  mob  attacked  the  great  Paris  the  Bastille 

prison,  the  Bastille.     They  took  it  by  storm,  and 

tore  it  to  the  ground.     This  happened  on  the 

fourteenth  of  July,  1789,  a  day  which  the  French 

still  celebrate  as  the  birthday  of  their  nation's 


THE  /PALACE    OF    VERSAILLES 

liberty.     All  over  France  the  common  people  The  g.  nal 
rose  in  revolt.     The  soldiers  in  the  army  would  for  revolt 
no  longer  obey  their  officers.     The  king  was 
closely  watched,   and  when  he  attempted  to 
flee  to  Germany  was  brought  back  and  thrown 
into  prison.     Many  of  the  nobles,  in  terror, 
fled  from  the  country.     Thus  began  what  is 
known  as  the  French  Revolution. 

As  soon  as  the  king  was  thrown  into  prison 
and  the  people  of  France  took  charge  of  their 
government,  a  panic  ^arosex  throughout  the 
courts  of  Europe.  Other  kings,  alarmed  over 


108  The   Story   of 

the  fate  of  the  king  of  France,  began  to  fear 

for   themselves.     They,    too,    had    taxed    and 

oppressed  their  subjects.     They  felt  that  this 

revolt  of  the  French  people  must  be  put  down, 

and   the  king   of   France   set   back  upon   his 

throne,  otherwise  the  same  kind  of  revolt  might 

Kings  must  ^a^e  place  m  their  countries  as  well.      Accord- 

selfte  in        m&ly?  tne  king  °f  Prussia,  the  king  of  England, 

defense        and  the  emperor  of  Austria  all  made  war  on  the 

new    French    Republic.     They    proposed    to 

overwhelm  the  French  by  force  of  arms  and 

compel  them  to  put  back  their  king  upon  his 

throne. 

Of  course,  if  the  soldiers  in  the  armies  of  these 
ignorance     kings  had  known  what  the  object  of  this  war 

the  servant 

of  tyranny  was,  they  would  have  had  very  little  sympathy 
with  it,  but  for  years  they  had  been  trained 
to  obey  their  officers,  who  in  turn  obeyed 
their  generals,  who  in  turn  obeyed  the  orders  of 
the  kings.  The  common  soldiers  were  like  sheep, 
in  that  they  did  not  think  for  themselves,  but 
followed  their  leaders.  They  were  not  allowed 
to  know  the  truth  concerning  this  attack  on 
France.  They  did  not  know  the  French  lan- 
guage, and  had  no  way  of  finding  out  the  real 
situation,  for  there  were  no  public  schools  in 
these  countries,  and  very  few  people  knew  how 
A  shackled  ^°  reac^  ^e  newspapers.  The  newspapers, 
press  moreover,  were  controlled  by  the  governments, 


The  Map  of  Europe  109 

and  were  allowed  to  print  only  what  favored 
the  cause  of  the  kings. 

The  French,  however,  knew  the  meaning  of 
the  war.  A  young  French  poet  from  Strasbourg 
on  the  Rhine  wrote  a  wonderful  war  song 
which  was  first  sung  in  Paris  by  the  men  of 
Marseilles,  and  thus  has  come  to  be  called 
"La  Marseillaise."  It  is  the  cry  of  a  crushed 


THE    REIGN    OF    TERROR 


and  oppressed  people  against  foreign  tyrants 

A  people 

who  would  again  enslave  them.     It  fired  the  at  bay 
French  army  with  a  wonderful  enthusiasm,  and 
untrained  as  they  were,   they  beat  back  the 
invaders  at  the  hard-fought  field  of  Valmy  and 
saved  the  French  Republic. 

The  period  known  as  "the  reign  of  terror" 
now  began  in  earnest.     Abaction  of  the  extreme 


(110) 


The  Map  of  Europe  111 

republican  party  got  control  of  the  government, 
and  kept  it  by  terrorizing  the  more  peaceable 
citizens.  The  brutal  wrongs  which  nobles  had 
put  upon  the  lower  classes  for  so  many  hundred 
years  were  brutally  avenged.  The  king  was 

executed,  as  were  most  of  the  nobles  who  had  Wrongs  aid 

washed  out 
not  fled  from  the  country.      For  three  or  four  by  blood 

years,  the  gutters  of  the  principal  French  cities 
ran  blood.  Then  the  better  sense  of  the  nation 
came  to  the  front  and  the  people  settled  down. 
A  fairly  good  government  was  organized,  and 
the  executions  ceased.  Still  the  kings  of 
Europe  would  not  ree6gnize^  the  new  republic. 
There  was  war  against  France  for  the  next 
twenty  years  on  the  part  of  England,  and  gen- 
erally two  or  three  other  countries  as  well. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  was  Poland  an  easy  prey  for  her  neighbors? 
(6)  Why  did  not  Spain,  France,  or  England  interfere  to 
prevent  the  partition  of  Poland? 

(c)  How  did  Lithuania  come  to  be  joined  to  Poland? 

(d)  What  things  could  the  king  of  France  do  which  would 
not  be  tolerated  in  the  United  States  today? 

(e)  Why  did  the  people  of  France  submit  to  the  rule  of 
the  king? 

(/)  Why  did  the  king  call  together  the  three  "estates"? 

(0)  Why  do  the  French  celebrate  the  14th  of  July? 

(h)  Why  did  the  other  kings  take  up  the  cause  of  the  king 
of  France? 

(1)  What  was  the  cause  of  the  reign  of  terror? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   LITTLE  MAN  FROM 
THE   COMMON  PEOPLE 

The  young  Corsican. —  The  war  in  Italy. —  Italy  a  battle- 
field for  centuries. —  The  victories  of  Bonaparte. —  The  first 
consul. —  The  empire. —  The  French  sweep  over  Europe. — 
Kings  and  emperors  beaten  and  deposed. —  The  fatal  Russian 
campaign. —  The  first  abdication. —  The  return  from  Elba. — 
The  battle  of  Waterloo. —  The  feudal  lords  once  more  tri- 
umphant. 

And  now  there  came  to  the  front  one  of  the 

most    remarkable    characters    in    all    history. 

This  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  little  man  from 

the  island  of  Corsica,  of  Italian  parentage,  but 

a  French  citizen,  for  the  island  had  been  forcibly 

The  annexed   to   France   shortly  before  his   birth. 

Heutenant     As  a  y°un&  lieutenant  in  the  army,  he  had  seen 

of  artillery    the  storming  of  the  Bastille.     Later  on,  being 

in  charge  of  the  cannon  which  defended  the 

House   of   Parliament,  he  had   saved    one   of 

the  numerous  governments  set  up  during  this 

period.     A  Paris  mob  was  trying  to  storm  this 

building,  as  they  had  the  castle  of  the  king. 

As  a  reward,  he  had  been  put   in  charge  of 

the  French  army  in  Italy,  which  was  engaged 

in  fighting  the  Austrians. 

112 


The  Map  of  Europe  113 

In  order  to  understand  the  situation  it  is 
necessity  at  this  point  to  devote  some  attention 
to  the  past  history  of  the  Italian  peninsula. 

Italy  had  not  been  a  united  country  since  the 
days  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  southern  Divided 
part  of  the  peninsula  had  formed,  with  Sicily,  Italy 
a. small  nation  called  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  The  northern  part  had  belonged  to 
the  Ostrogoths,  the  Lombards,  the  Franks, 
and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  turn.  The 
Italian  people  wanted  to  become  one  nation, 
but  they  were  divided  up-among  many  little 
princes,  each  with  hi/  separate  dominions. 
The  cities  of  Genoa  and  Venice  Mad  each  formed 
a  republic,  which  was  strong  on  the  sea  only, 
for  both  cities  had  large  navies  and  had  acquired 
practically  all  their  wealth  by  their  trade  with 
Constantinople,  Egypt,  and  the  far  East.  In 
1796  the  Hapsburg  family  held  the  control  of  The 
northern  Italy  except  the  lands  around  the  city  in  Italy 
of  Venice  and  the  county  of  Piedmont.  The 
latter  formed  a  separate  kingdom  with  the 
island  of  Sardinia,  much  as  Sicily  was  joined 
with  the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula. 

Italy  had  been  the  battlefield  where  Goths, 
Franks,  Huns,  Lombards,  Germans,  Austrians, 
French,  and  Spaniards  had  fought  their  battles 
for  the  control  of  the  civilized  world.  (See 
the  following  maps.)  At  one  time,  the  Austrian 


114 


The   Story   of 


ITALY  IN  525  A.D. 

1  \///A  Kingdom    of  the    Ostrogoths 

2  I 1  Kingdom  of   the    Vandals 

3|          |  Kingdom  of   the  Franks 

4  £§§$§}  Kingdom  of   the  Burgundians 


The  Map  cf 


115 


ITALY  IN  650  A.D. 


Lands  of  the  Lombards 

Lands  of  the  Eastern  Empire   (The  Greek   Empire  at  Constantinople) 

Country  of  the  Serbs  and   Croats 

Country  of  the   Avars 

Kingdom  of  the  Franks 


116 


The   Story   of 


1  I  |  Lands  of  the   Holy  Roman   Empire 

2  R>^\\^\\j  Stales  of    the  Church 

3  IHiiillillllllllllll  Lands  of  the  Republic   of  Venice 

4  I  I  I  II  I  II  The   Kingdom    of    Hungary 

5  V////////\  The    Kingdom  of    Sicily 

Lands  of    the    Moors   and    Saracens 


The  Map  of  Europe 


117 


CHARLES    THE    FIFTH 


House  of  Hapsburg  controlled  the  greater  part 
of  the  peninsula.  This  was  especially  true 
when  Charles  V  was  elected  emperor  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  As  a  Hapsburg,  he  was 
ruler  of  Austria.  As  a  descendant  of  Charles 
the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy ,\he  was/  Lord  of 
the  Low  Countries  (what  is  nowHolland  and 


118 


The   Story   of 


Austrians 
vs.  French 


Enter 

Napoleon 

Bonaparte 


Belgium).  He  was  also  king  of  Spain,  being 
the  oldest  living  grandson  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  When  he  became  ruler  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  and  defeated  the  French  king  for  the 
control  of  northern  Italy,  there  were  only  four 
powers  in  Europe  which  were  not  under  his 
sway:  Russia,  Turkey,  Poland,  and  England. 
(See  map  following  page  92.) 

Three  hundred  years  after  this,  the  Austrians 
were  again  invading  Italy,  and  at  the  time  when 
Bonaparte  entered  it  (1796),  they  had  overrun 
and  controlled  the  entire  valley  of  the  Po.  The 
cause  of  the  war  was  still  the  deposing  of  the 
French  monarch.  The  Austrian  armies  were 
fighting  to  force  the  people  of  France  to  take 
back  the  rule  of  the  hated  kings.  The  armies 
of  France,  on  the  other  hand,  represented  the 
rights  of  the  people  to  choose  their  own  form 
of  government. 

Of  course  the  French,  intoxicated  by  the 
success  of  the  Revolution,  were  eager  to  spread 
the  republican  form  of  government  all  over 
Europe.  There  was  a  real  possibility  that  they 
might  do  so,  and  the  kings  were  fighting  in 
defense  of  their  thrones.  (The  map  shows  the 
conquests  of  the  new  republic  up  to  this  time.) 

Such  was  the  situation  when  young  Bona- 
parte, twenty-six  years  of  age,  went  down  into 
Italy  to  take  command  of  the  French  army. 


EUROPE   IN  1796 

Just    after   the    French    Revolution 
and  the   Division   of    Poland 


0 


1 


s 


10 


\ 


.  Kingdom  ot  Sardinia 

2.  Republic  of   Switzerland 

3.  Kingdom   of   Bavaria 

.  Kingdom  of  Wurtemburg 

5.  Little   German  States 

6.  Batavian  Republic 

7.  Kingdom  of  Denmark' 
and    Norway 

8.  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 

9.  Kingdom  of  Sweden 
0..  Empire    of   Russia 

1.  Kingdom  of   Prussia 

2.  Lands  of  the   Hapsburgs 

(Austria-Hungary) 

3.  Turkish   Empire 

4.  Montenegro 

5.  Republic  of  Venice 

6.  Tuscany 

17.  States  of  the   Church 

18.  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies 

19.  Kingdom  of  Spain 

20.  Kingdom  of   Portugal 

21.  Republic  of  France 

22.  Republic   of  Genoa 

23.  Hanover 

24.  Saxony 


The  Map  of  Europe  119 

The  generals,  many  of  them  as  old  as  his  father, 
began  offering  him  advice,  but  he  impatiently 
waved  them  aside  and  announced  that  he  was 
going  to  wage  war  on  a  plan  hitherto  unheard  of. 
He  made  good  his  boast,  and  after  a  short 
campaign  in  which  he  inspired  his  ragged,  hungry 
army  to  perform  wonders  in  fighting,  .he  had  genius 
driven  the  Austrians  out  of  northern  Italy,  broken 
up  the  Republic  of  Venice,  and  forced  the  emperor 
to  make  peace  with  France.  After  a  brilliant 
but  unsuccessful  campaign  in  Egypt  and  Syria, 
Bonaparte  returned  to  France,  where,  as  the 
popular  military  hero,  he  had  little  difficulty 
in  overthrowing  the  five  Directors  of  the  French 
government  and  having  himself  elected  "  First 
Consul"  or  president  of  France. 

A  new  combination  of  nations  now  united 
against   the   republic,    but   Bonaparte   cut   to 

pieces  a  great  Austrian  army,  and  a  second  time  A,  rale5  t 

.  .  elected    by 

compelled  his  enemies  to  make  peace.     He  now  his  people 

proposed  that  the  French  people  elect  him 
"emperor  of  the  French"  for  life,  and  by  an 
overwhelming  vote  they  did  so.  The  empire 
was  very  different  from  the  other  empires  and 
kingships  of  Europe,  since  it  was  created  by  the 
vote  of  the  people.  The  other  monarchs  held 
their  thrones  by  reason  of  their  descent  from  the  / 
chiefs  of  the  plundering  tribes  which  mvadea 
Europe  during  the  Dark  Ages.  By  this  time, 


120 


The   Story   of 


Kings 
claim 
divine 
authority 


The 

awakening 
of  the 
peasants 


the  kings  had  forgotten  that  they  owed  their 
power  to  the  swords  of  their  fighting  men, 
there  had  grown  up  a  doctrine  called  e 

Divine  Right  of  Kings."  In  other  words, 
kings  claimed  that  God  in  his  wisdom  had  seen 
fit  to  make  them  rulers  over  these  lands,  and 
that  they  were  responsible  to  God  alone.  In 
this  way  they  tried  to  make  it  appear  that  any 
one  who  attempted  to  drive  a  king  from  his 
throne  was  opposed  to  the  will  of  Heaven. 

The  victorious  French,  exulting  in  their 
newly-won  freedom  from  the  tyranny  of  kings 
and  nobles,  were  full  of  warlike  pride  in  the  won- 
derful victories  gained  by  their  armies  under  the 
brilliant  leadership  of  Napoleon.  (He  dropped 
his  last  name,  Bonaparte,  when  he  was  elected 
emperor.)  They  swept  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  and  helped  to  spread  the  idea  that 
the  people  had  rights  that  all  kings  were  bound 
to  respect,  and  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  be 
ruled  by  descendants  of  the  old  robber  chiefs. 

For  sixteen  years  Napoleon  did  not  meet 
defeat.  He  beat  the  Austrians  and  Russians 
singly;  he  beat  them  combined.  In  two  fierce 
battles,  he  crushed  the  wonderful  Prussian 
army,  which  had  been  trained  in  the  military 
school  of  Frederick  the  Great.  He  drove 
out  the  king  of  Spain,  the  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  the  kings  of  several  of  the  small  German 


EUROPE    IN    181O 

Napoleon     at    the     Height  of    his  Power 


CONTROLLED  BY  FRANCE 
The   Empire   of  France 
Little  German  States  composing 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine 

3.  Kingdom   of  Westphalia 

4.  Kingdom   of   Italy 
Kingdom  of    Naples 

6.  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw 

7.  Kingdom    of  Spain 

8.  Republic    of    Switzerland 

ALLIED  WITH  FRANCE 

9.  Empire    of   Austria 

0.  Kingdom   of  Prussia 

1.  Kingdom    of  Sweden 

2.  Kingdom  of    Denmark 
and    Norway 

INDEPENDENT  OF  FRANCE 

13.  Empire   of  Russia 

14  Turkish  Empire 

15.  Montenegro 

16.  Kingdom    of   Sicily 

17.  Kingdom  of  Sardinia 

18.  Kingdom  of  Portugal 

19.  Kingdom  of   Great  Britain 


E    A 


The  Map  of  .Europe  121 

kingdoms.  He  made  one  of  his  brothers 
king  of  Spain,  another  king  of  Holland,  a 
third  king  of  Westphalia  (part  of  western 
Germany).  He  set  his  brother-in-law  on  the 
throne  of  Naples.  He  had  his  small  son 
crowned  king  of  Rome.  He  took  away  from 
Prussia  all  of  her  territory  except  Brandenburg,  corsican 

Silesia,  Pomerania,  and  East  and  West  Prussia.  makes  and 

unmakes 
He  reorganized  the  old  Polish  kingdom  and  kings 

called  it  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  He 
forced  Austria  to  give  up  all  claim  to  northern 
Italy.  He  annexed  to  France  the  land  which  is 
now  Belgium  and  Holland,  and  parts  of  western 
Germany  and  Italy.  (See  map  entitled 
"Europe  in  1810.") 

All  over  Europe,  those  of  the  people  who  had 
education  enough  to  understand  what  was 
going  on,  were  astonished  to  see  the  old  feudal 
kings  and  princes  driven  from  their  thrones 
and  their  places  taken  by  men  sprung  from  the 
common  people.  The  father  of  the  Bonapartes 
had  been  a  poor  lawyer.  Murat,  Napoleon's 
brother-in-law,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was 
the  son  of  an  innkeeper.  Bernadotte,  one  of  Rulers 

Napoleon's  generals,  whom  the  Swedes  chose  from  the 

common 
as  their  king,  was  likewise  descended  from  the  people 

lower  classes.  In  nations  where  the  working 
classes  had  never  dreamed  of  opposing  the 
rulers  there  sprang  up  a  new  hope. 


THE    EMPEROR   NAPOLEON   IN    1814 


(122) 


The  Map  of  Europe  123 

Bonaparte   at    last   made   a   fatal   mistake.  Thefatal 
With  an  army  of  half  a  million  men,  he  invaded  blunder 
Russia,    and   established   his   headquarters   in 
Moscow.     The  Russian  people,  however,  set  fire 
themselves   to    their   beautiful   city,    and   the 

French  had  to  retreat  a  thousand  miles  through  TheL , 

terrible 

snow  and  ice,  while  bands  of  Russian  Cossacks  retreat 
swooped  down  on  them  from  the  rear  and  took  a 
hundred  thousand  prisoners.  Encouraged  by 
this  terrible  blow  dealt  the  French,  the  allied 
kings  of  Europe  again  united  in  one  last  effort 
to  drive  the  little  Corsican  from  the  throne  of 
France. 

For  two  years  Napoleon  held  them  at  bay, 
making  up  for  his  lack  of  soldiers  by  his  marvel- 
ous military  skill,  and  by  the  enthusiasm  which 
he  never  failed  to  arouse  in  his  troops.  In  1814, 
however,  surrounded  by  the  troops  of  Austria, 
Prussia,  Russia,  and  England,  he  had  to  confess  by  numbers 
himself  beaten.  Even  Bernadotte,  his  former 
general,  led  the  Swedish  troops  against  him. 
The  allied  kings  brought  back  in  triumph  to 
Paris  the  brother  of  the  king  who  had  been 
murdered  there  twenty-two  years  before,  and 
set  him  on  the  throne  of  France.  Napoleon  was 
banished  to  the  little  island  of  Elba  to  the  west 
of  Italy,  and  the  monarchs  flattered  themselves 
that  their  troubles  were  ended. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  however, 


(124) 


The  Map  of  Europe  125 

Napoleon  escaped  from  his  island  prison  and 
landed  on  the  southern  coast  of  France.  The 
king  ordered  his  soldiers  to  capture  their 
former  emperor.  But  the  magic  of  his  presence 
was  too  much  for  them,  and  the  men  who  had  The  peopie 

been  sent  to  put  him  into  chains  shed  tears  of  rise  a , 

second 

joy  at  the  sight  of  him,  and  threw  themselves  time 
at  his  feet.     One  week  later,  the  king  of  France 
had  fled  a  second  time  from  his  country,  and 
the  man  chosen  by  the  people  was  once  more  at 
the  head  of  the  government. 

All  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  declared  war 
against  France,  and  four  large  armies  were 
headed  toward  her  borders.  Napoleon  did  not 
wait  for  them  to  come.  Gathering  a  big  force, 
he  marched  rapidly  north  into  the  low  countries, 
where  he  met  and  defeated  an  army  of  Prus- 
sians. Another  army  of  English  was  advancing 
from  Brussels.  .On  the  field  of  Waterloo,  the 
French  were  defeated  in  one  of  the  great 
battles  of  the  world's  history.  The  defeated 
Prussians  had  made  a  wide  circuit  and  returned 
to  the  field  to  the  aid  of  their  English  allies,, 
while  the  general  whom  Napoleon  had  sent  to 
follow  the  Germans  arrived  too  late  to  prevent, 
the  emperor  from  being  crushed.  A  second 
time,  Napoleon  had  to  give  up  his  crown,  and 
a  second  time  King  Louis  XVIII  was  brought 
back  into  Paris  and  put  upon  the  French 


126 


The   Story   of 


NAPOLEON   AT  WATERLOO 


throne    by    the    bayonets    of    foreign    troops. 

Feudalism  J 

triumphant  The  people  had  been  crushed,  apparently, 
and  the  old  feudal  lords  were  once  more  in 
control. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Had  Italy  ever  been  a  nation? 

(6)  What  German  tribe  ruled  Italy  in  525?     (See  map.) 

(c)   What  tribe  ruled  Italy  in  650?     (See  map.) 

(d}  What  part  of  Italy  once  belonged  to  the  Holy  Roman 

Empire?     (See  map.) 

(e)   What  induced  the  French  to  elect  Bonaparte  as  First 

Consul  and  afterward  Emperor? 

(/)  What  led  Napoleon  to  make  war  on  the  other  rulers? 

(0)  What  was  Napoleon's  great  mistake? 

(K)  Why  did  the  people  welcome  him  upon  his  return 
from  Elba? 

(1)  What  was  the  effect  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo? 


CHAPTER  X 

A  KING-MADE  MAP  AND   ITS 
TRAIL  OF  WRONGS 

A  meeting  of  kings  and  diplomats. —  Austrians  and  English 
vs.  Prussians  and  Russians. —  Talleyrand  the  subtle. — 
Carving  a  new  map. —  The  people  are  ignored. —  Sowing  the 
seeds  of  trouble. —  Unhappy  Poland. —  Divided  Italy. — 
Revolts  of  the  people. —  The  outbreaks  of  1848. 

And  now  the  kings  and  princes,  with  their 
ministers  of  state  and  diplomats,  met  at  Vienna 
to  decide  what  should  be  the  map  of  Europe. 
In  past  years,  there  had  been  a  great  deal  of 
suspicion  and  jealousy  among  these  monarchs. 
Hardly  five  years  had  gone  by  without  finding 
two  of  them  flying  at  each  other's  throats  in 
some  unjust  war  or  other.  Only  their  great  fear 
of  uprisings  similar  to  the  French  Revolution 
had  driven  them  to  act  together  in  crushing  the 
French  Republic,  and  the  empire  voted  by  the 

people,  which  had  followed  it.     This  famous  Jhe 

Congress 

"  Congress  of  Vienna,"   which  took  place  in  of  Vienna 
1815,  is  a  fair  example  of  the  way  in  which 
European  lands  have  been  cut  up  and  parceled 
out  to  various  monarchs  without  any  regard 
for  the  wishes  of  the  people. 

127 


128 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  129 

Russia  and  Prussia,  proud  of  the  part  that 
their  mighty  armies  had  had  in  crushing  Napo- 
leon, were  arrogantly  intending  to  divide  the 
map  of  Europe  as  suited  them,  and  it  was  only 
by  a  great  deal  of  diplomacy  that  they  were 
beaten.  (The  game  of  diplomacy  is  frequently 
a  polite  name  for  some  very  cunning  deception,  at  work 
involving  lying  and  cheating,  in  which  kings  and 
their  ministers  take  part.)  The  Austrians  were 
afraid  of  the  Russian-Prussian  combination, 
and  they  induced  England  to  side  with  them. 
England  did  not  love  Austria,  but  feared 
the  other  two  powers.  The  English  minister, 
Lord  Castlereagh,  finally  persuaded  the  Aus- 
trians, Prussians,  and  Russians,  to  allow  the 
French  diplomat,  Talleyrand,  to  take  part  in 
their  final  meetings.  Now  Talleyrand  was 
probably  the  most  slippery  and  tricky  diplomat  The 
of  all  Europe.  He  had  grown  to  power  during  diplomat 
the  troublous  days  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
Trench  Revolution,  and  had  guessed  which 
party  would  remain  in  power  so  skillfully  that  he 
always  appeared  as  the  strong  friend  of  the  win- 
ning side.  Although  he  had  served  Napoleon 
during  the  first  years  of  the  empire,  he  was 
shrewd  enough  to  remain  true  to  King  Louis 
XVIII  during  the-  latter's  second  exile.  The 
Prussian-Russian  combination  was  finally 
obliged  to  give  in,  somewhat,  to  the  demands  of 


130 


The   Story   of 


The 

division  of 
the  spoils 


Trading 
in  nations 


Austria,  England,  and  France.  Compare  this 
map  with  the  one  given  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, and  you  will  see  most  of  the  important 
changes. 

Prussia,  which  had  been  cut  down  to  about 
half  its  former  size  by  Napoleon,  got  back  some 
of  its  Polish  territory,  and  was  given  a  great  deal 
of  land  in  western  Germany  along  the  River 
Rhine.  Part  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  was 
forcibly  annexed  to  Prussia  also.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  its  inhabitants  were  bitterly 
unhappy  over  this  arrangement.  Austria  kept 
part  of  her  Polish  territory,  and  gave  the  rest 
of  it  to  Russia. 

The  southern  part  of  the  Netherlands,  which 
is  today  called  Belgium,  had  belonged  to  the 
Hapsburg  family,  the  emperors  of  Austria.  As 
was  previously  said,  it  was  conquered  by  the 
French  and  remained  part  of  France  until  the 
fall  of  Napoleon.  It  was  now  joined  with  Hol- 
land to  make  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 
Its  people  were  Walloons  and  Flemish,  almost 
entirely  Catholic  in  their  religion,  and  they 
very  much  disliked  to  be  joined  with  the  Protes- 
tant Dutch  of  Holland. 

The  state  of  Finland,  which  had  not  been 
strong  enough  to  defend  itself  against  its 
two  powerful  neighbors,  Sweden  and  Russia, 
had  been  fought  over  by  these  two  powers  for 


EUROPE  IN  1815 

After    the    Congress    of    Vienna 


fcr  is  i 

/  ^ 


\ 


I 


1.  Kingdom   of    Spain 

2.  Kingdom   of    Portugal 

3.  Kingdom  of    France 

4.  Kingdom   of    Sardinia 

5.  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies 

6.  States    of  the  Church 

7.  Tuscany 

8.  Republic   of    Switzerland 

9.  Empire  cf   Austria 

10.  Montenegro 

11.  Turkish   Empire 

12.  Empire  of   Russia 

13.  Kingdom  of  Sweden 
and    Norway 

14.  Kingdom    of  Prussia 

15.  Republic  of   Cracow 

16.  Little    German   States,   with 
Austria   and  Prussia,  composing 
the  German  Confederation 

17.  Kingdom    of  the   Netherlands 

18.  Kingdom  of   Denmark 

19.  Kingdom  of  Great   Britain 
and   Ireland 

20.  Parma 

21.  Modena 

22.  Republic    of  San   Marino 


The  Map  of  Europe  131 

more  than  a  century.  It  was  finally  transferred 
to  Russia,  and  in  order  to  appease  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, which  had  been  ruled  by  the  Danes,  was 
torn  away  from  Denmark  and  made  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Sweden.  The  Norwegians  desired 
to  remain  an  independent  country,  and  they  trouble 
loved  the  Swedes  even  less  than  they  loved  the 
Danes.  Therefore,  this  union  was  another 
source  of  trouble.  The  greater  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  and  all  of  Lithuania  were 
joined  to  Russia. 

Russia  got  back  all  of  the  territory  she  had 
taken  in  1795,  and  in  addition  large  parts  of  the 
former  shares  of  Prussia  and  Austria.  In  order  to 
pay  back  Austria  for  the  loss  of  part  of  Poland, 
she  was  given  all  of  northern  Italy  except  the 
counties  of  Piedmont  and  Savoy  near  France. 

The  German  states  (and  these  included  both 
Austria  and  Prussia)  were  formed  into  a  loose 
alliance  called  the  German  Confederation. 
England's  share  of  the  plunder  consisted  largely 
of  distant  colonies,  such  as  South  Africa, 
Ceylon,  Trinidad,  etc.  France  shrank  back 
to  the  boundaries  which  she  had  had  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolution.  The  kings  of 
France,  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  of  Spain  (all  of  Thg  retum 
them  members  of  the  Bourbon  family)  who  had  of  tyrants 
been  driven  out  by  Napoleon,  were  set  back 
upon  their  thrones. 


132  The   Story   of 

This  arrangement  left  Italy  all  split  up  into 
nine  or  ten  different  parts,  although  its  people 
desired  to  be  one  nation.  It  left  Austria  a 
government  over  twelve  different  nationalities, 
each  one  of  which  was  dissatisfied.  It  joined 
Belgium  to  Holland  in  a  combination  dis- 
pleasing to  both.  It  gave  Norway  and  Finland 
as  subject  states  to  Sweden  and  Russia  respec- 
tively. It  left  the  Albanians,  Serbians,  Rou- 
Haifof  manians,  Bulgarians,  and  Greeks  all  subject 
dissatisfied  to  the  hated  Turks.  It  set  upon  three  thrones, 
once  vacant,  kings  who  were  hated  by  their 
subjects.  It  divided  the  Poles  up  among  four 
different  governments  —  for,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  the  powers  could  not  decide  who  should 
own  the  city  of  Cracow  and  the  territory  around 
it,  and  they  ended  by  making  this  district  a 
little  republic,  under  the  joint  protection  of 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  In  fact,  the 
Swiss,  serene  in  their  lofty  mountains,  were 
almost  the  only  small  people  of  Europe  who 
were  left  untroubled.  The  Congress  of  1815 
had  laid  the  foundation  for  future  revolutions 
and  wars  without  number. 

At  first,  the  Poles  were  fairly  well  treated  by 
the  Russians,  but  after  two  or  three  unsuccessful 

The  woes 

of  Poland  attempts  at  a  revolution,  Poland,  which,  as  one 
of  the  states  of  the  Russian  Empire,  was  still 
called  a  kingdom,  was  deprived  of  all  its  rights, 


The  Map  of  Europe  133 

and  its  people  were  forced  to  give  up  the  use  of 
their  language  in  their  schools,  their  courts, 
and  even  their  churches.  In  the  same  fashion, 
the  Poles  in  Prussia  were  "not  even  allowed  to 
think  in  Polish,"  as  one  Polish  patriot  bitterly 
put  it.  All  through  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century,  there  were  uprisings  and  struggles 
among  these  people.  As  a  result  of  one  of  them, 
in  1846,  the  little  Republic  of  Cracow  was 
abolished,  and  its  territory  forcibly  annexed 
to  Austria. 

The  Italian  people  formed  secret  societies 
which  had  for  their  object  the  uniting  of  Italy, 
and  the  freeing  of  its  people  from  foreign  rulers. 
All  through  Germany  there  were  mutterings 
of  discontent.  The  people  wanted  more  free- 

dom  from  their  lords.     Greece  broke  out  into  tented 

common 

insurrection  against  the  Turks,  and  fifteen  years  people 
after  the  Congress  of  1815  won  its  right  to 
independence.  Not  long  afterwards,  the 
southern  half  of 'the  Netherlands  broke  itself 
loose  from  the  northern  half,  and  declared  to 
the  world  that  it  should  henceforth  be  a  new 
kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Belgium.  About 
the  same  time,  the  people  of  France  rose  up 
against  the  Bourbon  kings,  and  threw  them  out 
"for  good."  A  distant  cousin  of  the  king  was 
elected,  not  "king  of  France"  but  "citizen  king 
of  the  French,"  and  the  people  were  allowed 


134 


The   Story   of 


A  short- 
lived 
republic 


The 
waning 
of  feudal 
powers 


to  elect  men  to  represent  them  in  a  parliament 
or  Congress  at  Paris.  In  Spain,  one  revolution 
followed  another.  For  a  short  time,  Spain  was 
a  republic,  but  the  people  were  not  well  enough 
educated  to  govern  themselves,  and  the  kingdom 
was  restored. 


PRINCE    METTERNICH 

The  statesman  who  had  more  to  do  with  the 
division  of  territory  in  1815  than  any  other  was 
Prince  Metternich  of  Austria.  He  stood  for  the 
"divine  right  of  kings,"  and  did  not  believe  in 
allowing  the  common  people  any  liberty  what- 
soever. In  1848,  an  uprising  occurred  in  Aus- 
tria, and  crowds  in  Vienna,  crying,  "down  with 
Metternich,"  forced  the  aged  diplomat  to  flee. 
During  the  same  year,  there  were  outbreaks 
in  Germany.  The  people  everywhere  were 


The  Map  of  Europe  135 

revolting  against  the  feudal  rights  of  their 
kings  and  princes,  and  gaining  greater  liberty 
for  themselves.  In  1848,  France,  also,  grew 
tired  of  her  "  citizen  king,"  and  that  country  a 
second  time  became  a  republic.  The  French 
made  the  mistake,  however,  of  electing  as  their 
president,  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  nephew 
of  the  great  Napoleon,  and  in  time  he  did 
exactly  what  his  uncle  had  done, — persuaded 
the  French  people  to  elect  him  emperor. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  were  the  motives  of  each  of  the  nations  repre- 
sented at  the  Congress  of  Vienna? 

(6)  Why  were  the  Russians  and  Prussians  the  leaders  of  the 
meeting  at  first? 

(c)  Why  did  the  English  and  Austrians  assist  each  other? 

(d)  What    had    Napoleon    done    for    Poland?     (See    last 
chapter.) 

(e)  What  kings  deposed  by  Napoleon  were  set  back  on  their 
thrones? 

(/)   What  were  the  greatest  wrongs  done  by  the  Congress? 

(0)  How  did  the  Poles  protest  against  the  settlement  made 
by  the  Congress? 

(K)  What  did  the  Belgians  do  about  it? 

(1)  What  did  the  French  finally  do  to  the  Bourbon  kings? 


CHAPTER  XI 
ITALY  A  NATION  AT   LAST. 

The  Crimean  War  curbs  Russia. —  Cavour  plans  a  United 
Italy. —  War  against  Austria. —  Garibaldi,  the  patriot. — 
The  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  becomes  part  of  the  new  Kingdom 
of  Italy. —  Venice  and  Rome  are  added. —  Some  Italians 
still  outside  the  kingdom. 

Meanwhile,  Italy,  under  the  leadership  of  two 
patriots  named  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi,  was  in  a 
turmoil.  The  Austrians  and  the  Italian  princes 
who  were  subject  to  them  were  constantly 
crushing  some  attempted  revolution. 

One  thing  which  helped  the  cause  of  the 
people  was  that  the  great  powers  were  all  jealous 
the  nations  of  each  other.  For  example,  Russia  attacked 
Turkey  in  1853,  but  France  and  England  were 
afraid  that  if  Russia  conquered  the  Turks  and 
took  Constantinople,  she  would  become  too 
powerful  for  them.  Therefore,  both  countries 
rushed  troops  to  aid  Turkey,  and  in  the  end, 
Russia  was  defeated,  although  thousands  of 
soldiers  were  killed  on  both  sides  before  the 
struggle  was  over. 

You  will  remember  that  the  counties  of 
The  Piedmont  and  Savoy  in  western  Italy,  together 

beginnings   w[fa  the  island  of  Sardinia,  made  up  a  little 

of  modern 

Italy  kingdom  known  as  the  "Kingdom  of  Sardinia. " 

136 


The  Map  of  Europe  137 

This  country  had  for  its  prime  minister,  a 
statesman  named  Count  Cavour,  who,  like  all 
Italians,  strongly  hoped  for  the  day  when  all  the  Cavour 
people  living  on  the  Italian  peninsula  should  be 
one  nation.  At  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War 
(as  the  war  between  Russia  on  the  one  side  and 
Turkey,  France,  and  England  on  the  other  was 
called)  he  caused  his  country  also  to  declare 
war  on  Russia,  and  sent  a  tiny  army  to  fight 
alongside  of  the  English  and  French.  A  few 
years  later,  he  secretly  made  a  bargain  with 
Napoleon  III.  (This  was  what  President  More 
Bonaparte  of  France  called  himself  after  he  had  diplomacy 
been  elected  emperor.)  The  French  agreed 
to  make  war  with  his  country  against  the 
Austrians.  If  they  won,  the  Sardinians  were 
to  receive  all  north  Italy,  and  in  return  for 
France's  help  were  to  give  France  the  county 
of  Savoy  and  the  seaport  of  Nice. 

When  Cavour  and  the  French  were  all  ready 
to  strike,  it  was  not  hard  to  find  an  excuse  for  a 
war.  Austria  declared  war  on  Sardinia,  and,  as 
had  been  arranged,  France  rushed  to  the  aid  of 
the  Italians.  Austria  was  speedily  beaten, 
but  no  sooner  was  the  war  finished  than  the 
French  emperor  repented  of  his  bargain.  He 
was  afraid  that  it  would  make  trouble  for  him 
with  his  Catholic  subjects  if  the  Italians  were 
allowed  to  take  all  the  northern  half  of  the 


138  The   Story   of 

peninsula,  including  the  pope's  lands,  into  their 
kingdom.  Accordingly,  the  Sardinians  re- 
ceived only  Lombardy  in  return  for  Savoy  and 
Nice,  which  they  gave  to  France,  and  the 
Austrians  kept  the  county  of  Venetia.  A  fire 
once  kindled,  however,  is  hard  to  put  out.  No 
sooner  did  the  people  of  the  other  states  of 
The  s  kit  nortnern  Italy  see  the  success  of  Sardinia,  than, 
of  revolt  one  after  another,  they  revolted  against  their 
Austrian  princes  and  voted  to  join  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy.  In  this  way,  Parma,  Mo- 
dena,  Tuscany,  and  part  of  the  "  States  of  the 
Church"  were  added.  All  of  this  happened  in 
the  year  1859. 

These  "  States  of  the  Church"  came  to  be 
formed  in  the  following  way :  The  father  of  the 
great  king  of  the  Franks,  Charlemagne,  who  had 
been  crowned  western  emperor  by  the  pope  in 
the  year  800,  had  rescued  northern  Italy  from 
the  rule  of  the  Lombards.  He  had  made  the 
pope  lord  of  a  stretch  of  territory  extending 
across  Italy  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  Medi- 

The  pope     terranean.     The  inhabitants  of  this  country  had 

as  a  feudal 

lord  no  ruler  but  the  pope.     They  paid  their  taxes  to 

him,  and  acknowledged  him  as  their  feudal  lord. 
It  was  part  of  this  territory  which  revolted  and 
joined  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

You  will  remember  the  name  of  Garibaldi, 
the  Italian  patriot,  who  with  Mazzini  had  been 


The  Map  of  Europe  139 

stirring  up  trouble  for  the  Austrians.  They 
finally  pursued  him  so  closely  that  he  had  to 
leave  Italy.  He  came  to  America  and  set  up  a  The 
fruit  store  in  New  York  City,  where  there  were 
quite  a  number  of  his  countrymen.  By  1854,  patriot 
he  had  made  a  great  deal  of  money  in  the  fruit 
business,  but  had  not  forgotten  his  beloved 
country,  and  was  anxious  to  be  rich  only  in  order 
that  he  might  free  Italy  from  the  Austrians.  He 
sold  out  his  business  in  New  York,  and  taking 
all  his  money,  sailed  for  Italy.  When  the 
war  of  1859  broke  out,  he  volunteered,  and 
fought  throughout  the  campaign. 

But  the  compromising  terms  of  peace  galled 
him,  and  he  was  not  satisfied  with  a  country 
only  half  free.  In  the  region  around  Genoa,  Ahazard 
he  enrolled  a -thousand  men  to  go  on  what  ous venture 
looked  like  a  desperate  enterprise.  Garibaldi 
had  talked  with  Cavour,  and  between  them, 
they  had  schemed  to  overthrow  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  join  this  land  to  the 
northern  country.  Of  course,  Cavour  pretended 
not  to  know  anything  about  Garibaldi,  for  the 
king  of  Naples  and  Sicily  was  supposed  to  be  a 
friend  of  the  king  of  Sardinia.  Nevertheless, 
he  secretly  gave  Garibaldi  all  the  help  that  he 
dared,  and  urged  men  to  enroll  with  him. 

With  his  thousand  " red-shirts,"  as  they  were 
called,  Garibaldi  landed  on  the  island  of  Sicily, 


140 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  141 

at  Marsala.  The  inhabitants  rose  to  welcome 
him,  and  everywhere  they  drove  out  the  officers 
who  had  been  appointed  by  their  king  to  rule 
them.  In  a  short  time,  all  Sicily  had  risen  in  Sicily  rises 
rebellion  against  the  king.  (You  will  remember 
that  this  family  of  kings  had  been  driven  out 
by  Napoleon  and  restored  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  They  were  Bourbons,  the 
same  family  that  furnished  the  kings  of  Spain 
and  the  last  kings  of  France.  They  stood  for 
"the  divine  right  of  kings/'  and  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  common  people.)  Crossing  over 
to  the  mainland,  Garibaldi,  with  his  little  army 
now  swollen  to  ten  times  its  former  size,  swept 
everything  before  him  as  he  marched  toward 
Naples.  Everywhere,  the  people  rose  against 
their  former  masters,  and  welcomed  the  liber- 
ator. The  king  fled  in  haste  from  Naples,  never 
to  return.  A  vote  was  taken  all  over  the  south- 
ern half  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  to  decide  whether 
the  people  wanted  to  join  their  brothers  of  the- 
north  to  make  a  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  It  was 
so  voted  almost  unanimously.  Victor  Emman-  The 
uel,  king  of  Sardinia,  thus  became  the  first  |ks[J£P/ 
king  of  United  Italy.  He  made  Florence  his  no  more, 
capital  at  first,  as  the  country  around  Rome 
still  belonged  to  the  pope.  The  pope  had  few 
soldiers,  but  was  protected  by  a  guard  of 
French  troops.  However,  ten  years  later,  in 


142  The   Story   of 

1870,  when  war  broke  out  between  France  and 
Prussia,  the  French  troops  left  Rome,  and  the 
troops  of  Italy  marched  quietly  in  and  took 
possession  of  the  city.  Rome,  for  so  many 
years  the  capital,  not  only  of  Italy  but  of  the 
whole  Mediterranean  world,  became  once  more 
the  chief  city  of  the  peninsula.  The  pope 
"Eternal  was  granted  a  liberal  pension  by  the  Italian 

City"  once  government  in  order  to  make  up  to  him  for 

more  a 

capital         the  loss  of  the  money  from  his  former  lands. 

The  dream  of  Italians  for  the  last  600  years 
had  finally  come  to  pass.  Italy  was  again  one 
country,  ruled  by  the  popular  Victor  Emmanuel, 
with  a  constitution  which  gave  the  people  the 
right  to  elect  representatives  to  a  parliament 
or  congress.  One  of  the  worst  blunders  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  had  been  set  right  by  the 
patriotism  of  the  people  of  Italy. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  there  are 
still  Italians  who  are  not  part  of  this  kingdom. 
The  county  of  Venetia,  at  the  extreme  northeast 
was  added  to  the  kingdom  in  1866 


Whatltal 

still  wished  as  the  result  of  a  war  which  will  be  told  about 

more  fully  in  the  next  chapter,  but  the  territory 
around  the  city  of  Trent,  called  by  the  Italians 
Trentino,  and  the  county  of  Istria  at  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  containing  the  import- 
ant seaports  of  Trieste,  Fiume,  and  Pola,  are 
inhabited  almost  entirely  by  people  of  Italian 


roil 
IM 


'VSAROINI-A 
j  /in-T858 


ITALIANS  NOT  INCLUDED 
IN  THE  KINGDOM  OF  ITALY 

1914 

Republic  of  San  Marino 
Istria      •)      belonging 
Trentinoj      to   Austria 
Ticino    part  of    Switzerland 


Parma 
Pontrernoli 
Modena 
Tuscany 

The  Kingdom  of 

the   Two  Sicilies 

Part  of   the 

States  of   the  Church 


Revolted   and 

voted  to  join 

Sardinia 

to   form  The 

Kingdom  of 

Italy 

1859-1860 


The  Map  of  Europe  143 

blood.  Certain  islands  along  the  coast  of 
Dalmatia  also  are  full  of  Italians.  To  rescue 
these  people  from  the  rule  of  Austria  has  been 
the  earnest  wish  of  all  Italian  patriots,  and  was 
the  chief  reason  why  Italy  did  not  join  Germany 
and  Austria  in  the  great  war  of  1914. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  did  England  and  France  side  with  Turkey  against 
Russia? 

(6)  What  bargain  did  Cavour  make  with  Napoleon  III? 

(c)  How  did  the  rest  of  Italy  come  to  join  Sardinia? 

(d)  Explain  the  origin  of  the  "States  of  the  Church." 

(e)  Why  did  Sicily  and  Naples  revolt  against  their  king? 
(/)  What  Italians  are  not  yet  citizens  of  the  kingdom  of 

Italy? 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  MAN   OF  BLOOD  AND   IRON 

The  people  demand  their  rights.  —  Bismarck,  the  chief 
prop  of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  —  The  question  of  the  leader- 
ship of  the  German  states.  —  The  wonderful  Prussian  army.  — 
The  war  on  Denmark.  —  Preparing  to  crush  Austria.  —  The 
battle  of  Sadowa.  —  Easy  terms  to  the  defeated  nation.  — 
Preparing  to  defeat  France.  —  A  good  example  of  a  war 
caused  by  diplomats.  —  Prussia's  easy  victory.  —  The  new 
German  empire.  —  Harsh  terms  of  peace.  —  The  triumph 
of  feudal  government. 

All  of  this  time,  the  kings  of  Europe  had  been 
engaged  in  contests  with  their  own  people. 
The  overthrow  of  the  French  king  at  the  time 
of  the  revolution  taught  the  people  of  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  that  they  too  could  obtain 
their  liberties.  You  have  already  been  told 


1848,  a  year  now  fae  people  of  Austria  drove  out  Prince 

of  popular  - 

uprisings      Metternich,  who  was  the  leader  of  the  party 

which  refused  any  rights  to  the  working  classes. 
That  same  year,  1848,  had  seen  the  last  king 
driven  out  of  France,  had  witnessed  revolts  in 
all  parts  of  Italy,  and  had  found  many  German 
princes  in  trouble  with  their  subjects,  who  were 
demanding  a  share  in  the  government,  the  right 
of  free  speech,  free  newspapers,  and  trial  by 
jury.  The  empires  of  Austria  and  Russia  had 

144 


The  Map  of  Europe  145 


BISMARCK 


joined  with  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  in  a  com- 
bination which  was  known  as  the  "Holy  Alii-  The  "Holy 

ance."     This  was  meant  to  stop  the  further  Alliance" 

against  the 
spread  of  republican  ideas   and  to   curb   the  people 

growing  power  of  the  common  people. 

Not  long  after  this,  there  came  to  the  front 


146 


The   Story   of 


Remaster  Bismarck. 

the 

Prussian 

machine 


The 

leadership 
of  the 
German 
states 


in  Prussia  a  remarkable  man,  who  for  the  next 
forty  years  was  perhaps  the  most  prominent 
statesman  in  Europe.  His  full  name  was  Otto 
Eduard  Leopold  von  Bismarck-Schonhausen, 
but  we  generally  know  him  under  the  name  of 
He  was  a  Prussian  nobleman,  a 
believer  in  the  divine  right  of  kings,  the  man 
who  more  than  anybody  else  is  responsible  for 
the  establishing  of  the  present  empire  of  Ger- 
many. He  once  made  a  speech  in  the  Prussian 
Diet  or  council  in  which  he  said  that  "  blood 
and  iron,"  not  speeches  and  treaties,  would 
unite  Germany  into  a  nation.  His  one  object 
was  a  united  Germany,  which  should  be  the 
strongest  nation  in  Europe.  He  wanted  Ger- 
many to  be  ruled  by  Prussia,  Prussia  to  be 
ruled  by  its  king,  and  the  king  of  Prussia  to  be 
controlled  by  Bismarck.  It  is  marvellous  to  see 
how  near  he  came  to  carrying  through  his  whole 
plan. 

After  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  Prussia 
remained  among  the  powers  of  Europe,  but  was 
not  as  great  as  Austria,  Russia,  England,  or 
France.  The  German  states,  some  35  in  num- 
ber, had  united  in  a  loose  alliance  called  the 
German  Confederation.  (This  union  was  some- 
what similar  to  the  United  States  of  America 
between  1776  and  1789.)  Austria  was  the 
largest  of  these  states,  and  was  naturally  looked 


The  Map  of  Europe  147 

upon  as  the  leader  of  the  whole  group.  Prussia 
was  the  second  largest,  while  next  after  Prussia, 
and  much  smaller,  came  the  kingdoms  of 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Wurtemburg. 
Bismarck,  as  prime  minister  of  Prussia,  built 
up  a  wonderfully  strong  army.  He  did  this  by  The 
means  of  a  military  system  which  at  first  made  of  Prussia 
him  very  unpopular  with  the  people.  Every 
man  in  the  nation,  rich  or  poor,  was  obliged  to 
serve  a  certain  number  of  years  in  the  army  and 
be  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  join  a  certain 
regiment  if  there  came  a  call  to  war. 

Having  organized  this  army,  and  equipped 
it  with  every  modern  weapon,  Bismarck  was 
anxious  to  use  it  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 
There  were  two  counties  named  Schleswig 
(shles'vig)  and  Holstein  (hol'stin)  which  be- 
longed to  the  king  of  Denmark  and  yet  con- 
tained a  great  many  German  people.  The 
inhabitants  of  Schleswig  were  perhaps  half 
Danes,  while  those  of  Holstein  were  more  than 
two-thirds  Germans.  These  Germans  had  pro- 
tested against  certain  actions  of  the  Danish 
government,  and  were  threatening  to  revolt. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  trouble,  Prussia  and  Awarof 
Austria,  as  the  leading  states  of  the  German  conquest 
Federation,  declared  war  on  little  Denmark. 
The  Danes  fought  valiantly,  but  were  over- 
whelmed by  the  armies  of  their  enemies. 


148  The  Story  of 

Schleswig  and  Holstein  were  torn  away  from 
Denmark  and  put  under  the  joint  protection  of 
Austria  and  Prussia. 

This  sort  of  arrangement  could  not  last. 
Sooner  or  later,  there  was  bound  to  be  a  quarrel 
over  the  division  of  the  plunder.  Now  Bis- 
marck had  a  chance  to  show  his  crafty  diplo- 
macy. He  made  up  his  mind  to  crush  Austria 
and  put  Prussia  in  her  place  as  the  leader  of  the 
German  states.  He  first  negotiated  with 
Napoleon  III,  Emperor  of  the  French,  and  made 
sure  that  this  monarch  would  not  interfere. 
Next  he  remembered  that  the  provinces  of 
Venetia,  Trentino,  and  Istria  still  belonged  to 
diplomacy  Austria,  as  the  Italians  had  failed  to  gain  them 
in  the  war  of  1859.  Accordingly,  Bismarck 
induced  Italy  to  declare  war  on  Austria  by 
promising  her  Venetia  and  the  other  provinces 
in  return  for  her  aid.  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and 
Hanover  were  friendly  to  Austria,  but  Bismarck 
did  not  fear  them.  He  knew  that  his  army, 
under  the  leadership  of  its  celebrated  general, 
von  Moltke,  was  more  than  a  match  for  the 
Austrians,  Bavarians,  etc.,  combined. 

When  Bismarck  was  ready,  Prussia  and  Italy 
struck.  The  Austrians  were  successful  at  first 
against  the  Italians,  but  at  Sadowa  in  Bohemia, 
their  armies  were  beaten  in  a  tremendous 
battle  by  the  Prussians.  Austria  was  put  down 


The  Map  of  Europe  149 

from  her  place  as  the  leader  of  the  German 
Confederation,  and  Prussia  took  the  leadership. 
Hanover,  whose  king  had  sided  with  the  Aus- 
trians,  was  annexed  to  Prussia.  The  king  of  To 


Prussia  and  several  of  his  generals  were  anxious 

belong  the 

to  rob  Austria  of  some  of  her  territory,  as  had  spoils 
been  the  custom  in  the  past  whenever  one 
nation  defeated  another  in  war.  Bismarck, 
however,  restrained  them.  In  his  program  of 
making  Prussia  the  leading  military  state  in 
Europe,  he  saw  that  his  next  opponent  would  be 
France,  and  he  did  not  propose,  on  attack- 
ing France,  to  find  his  army  assailed  in  the  rear 
by  the  revengeful  Austrians.  Accordingly, 
Bismarck  compelled  the  king  to  let  Austria  off 
without  any  loss  of  territory  except  Venetia, 
which  was  given  to  the  Italians.  Austria  was 
even  allowed  to  retain  Trentino  and  Istria,  and 
was  not  required  to  pay  a  large  indemnity  to 

Prussia.     (A   custom   which   had   come   down   . 

A  nation's 
from  the  middle  ages,  when  cities  which  were  ransom 

captured  had  been  obliged  to  pay  great  sums 
of  money,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  conquering 
armies,  was  the  payment  of  a  war  indemnity 
by  the  defeated  nation.  This  was  a  sum  of 
money  as  large  as  the  conquerors  thought 
they  could  safely  force  their  victims  to  pay.) 
The  Austrians,  although  they  were  angry  over 
the  manner  in  which  Bismarck  had  provoked 


150 


The   Story   of 


Not  room 
for  two 
dictators 
in  Europe 


the  war,  nevertheless  appreciated  the  fact 
that  he  was  generous  in  not  forcing  harsh 
terms  upon  them,  as  he  could  have  done  had 
he  wanted  to. 

The  eyes  of  all  Europe  now  turned  toward 
the  coming  struggle  between  Prussia  and 
France.  It  was  plain  that  it  was  impossible 
for  two  men  like  Bismarck  and  Emperor 
Napoleon  to  continue  in  power  very  long  with- 
out coming  to  blows.  It  was  Bismarck's 
ambition,  as  was  previously  said,  to  make 
Prussia  the  leading  military  nation  of  Europe, 
and  he  knew  that  this  meant  a  struggle  with 
Napoleon.  You  will  remember  also  that  he 
planned  a  united  Germany,  led  by  Prussia,  and 
he  felt  that  the  French  war  would  bring  this 
about.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  emperor 
was  extremely  jealous  of  the  easy  victory  that 
Prussia  and  Italy  had  won  over  Austria.  He 
had  been  proud  of  the  French  army,  and  wanted 
it  to  remain  the  greatest  fighting  force  in 
Europe.  He  was  just  as  anxious  for  an  excuse 
to  attack  Prussia  as  Bismarck  was  for  a  pretext 
to  attack  him. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  all  this  time 
there  was  no  ill-feeling  between  the  French 
pepple  and  the  Germans.  In  fact,  the  Germans 
of  the  Rhine  country  were  very  friendly  to 
France,  and  during  Napoleon's  time  had  been 


The  Map  of  Europe  151 

given  more  liberties  and  had  been  governed 
better  than  under  the  rule  of  their  former  feudal 
lords.  All  the  hostility  and  jealousy  was 
between  the  military  chiefs.  Even  Bismarck 
did  not  dislike  the  French.  He  had  no  feeling  hostility  is 


toward  them  at  all.  It  was  part  of  his  program 
that  their  military  power  should  be  crushed  and  chiefs 
his  program  must  be  carried  through.  Europe, 
to  his  mind,  was  too  small  to  contain  more  than 
one  master  military  power. 

The  four  years  between  1866  and  1870  were 
used  by  Bismarck  to  gain  friends  for  Prussia 
among  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  to  make 
enemies  for  France.  The  kingdoms  of  south 
Germany  (Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wurtemburg), 
which  had  sided  with  Austria  during  the  late 
war,  were  friendly  to  France  and  hostile  to 
Prussia.  Napoleon  III,  however,  made  a  pro- 
posal in  writing  to  Bismarck  that  France  should 
be  given  a  slice  of  this  south  German  territory 
in  return  for  some  other  land  which  France  was 
to  allow  Prussia  to  seize.  Bismarck  pretended 
to  consider  this  proposal,  but  was  careful  to  keep 
the  original  copy,  in  the  French  ambassador's 
own  handwriting.  (Each  nation  sends  a  man  Diplomatic 

maneuver- 

to  represent  her  at  the  capital  of  each  other  ing 
nation.     These   men   are   called   ambassadors. 
They  are  given  power  to  sign  agreements  for 
their  governments.)     By  showing  this  to  the 


152 


The   Story   of 


Efficiency 
vs. 

inefficiency 
and  "graft" 


rulers  of  the  little  south  German  kingdoms,  he 
was  able  to  turn  them  against  Napoleon  and  to 
make  secret  treaties  with  these  states  by  which 
they  bound  themselves  to  fight  on  the  side  of 
Prussia  in  case  a  war  broke  out  with  France. 
In  similar  fashion,  Bismarck  made  the  Belgians 
angry  against  the  French  by  letting  it  be  known 
that  Napoleon  was  trying  to  annex  their 
country  also. 

Meanwhile,  aided  by  General  von  Moltke 
and  Count  von  Roon  (ron),  Bismarck  had  built 
up  a  wonderful  military  power.  Every  man  in 
Prussia  had  been  trained  a  certain  number  of 
years  in  the  army  and  was  ready  at  a  moment's 
notice  to  join  his  regiment.  The  whole  cam- 
paign against  France  had  been  planned  months 
in  advance.  In  France  on  the  other  hand,  the 
illness  and  advanced  age  of  Napoleon  III  had 
resulted  in  poor  organization.  Men  who  did 
not  wish  to  serve  their  time  in  the  army  were 
allowed  to  pay  money  to  the  government 
instead.  Yet  their  names  were  carried  on  the 
rolls.  In  this  way,  the  French  army  had  not 
half  the  strength  in  actual  numbers  that  it  had 
on  paper.  What  is  more,  certain  government 
officials  had  taken  advantage  of  the  emperor's 
weakness  and  lack  of  system 'and  had  put  into 
their  own  pockets  money  tjiat  should  have  been 
spent  in  buying  guns  and  ammunition. 


The  Map  of  Europe  153 

When  at  last  Bismarck  was  all  ready  for  the 
war,  it  was  not  hard  to  find  an  excuse.  Old 
Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  had  been  driven  from 
her  throne,  and  the  Spanish  army  under  General 
Prim  offered  the  crown  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Hohenzollern,  a  cousin  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 
This  alarmed  Napoleon,  who  imagined  that  if 
Prussia  attacked  him  on  the  east,  this  Prussian 
prince,  as  king  of  Spain,  would  lead  the  Spanish  |h®nish 
army  over  the  Pyrenees  against  him  on  the  question 
south.  France  made  so  vigorous  a  protest  that 
the  prince  asked  the  Spaniards  not  to  think  of 
him  any  longer.  This  was  not  enough  for 
Napoleon,  who  now  proceeded  to  make  a  fatal 
mistake.  The  incident  was  closed,  but  he 
persisted  in  reopening  it.  He  sent  his  ambassa- 
dor to  see  King  William  of  Prussia  to  ask  the 
latter  to  assure  France  that  never  again  should 
Prince  Leopold  be  considered  for  the  position 
of  king  of  Spain.  The  king  answered  that  he 
could  not  guarantee  this,  for  he  was  merely  the 
head  of  the  Hohenzollern  family.  Prince  Leo- 
pold, whose  lands  lay  outside  of  Prussia,  was  not 
even  one  of  his  subjects.  The  interview 
between  the  king  and  the  French  ambassador 
had  been  a  friendly  one.  The  ambassador  had 
been  very  courteous  to  the  king,  and  the  king 
had  been  very  polite  to  the  ambassador.  They 
had  parted  on  good  terms. 


(154) 


The  Map  of  Europe  155 

In  the  meanwhile,  Bismarck  had  been  hoping 
that  an  excuse  for  war  would  come  from  this 
incident.  He  was  at  dinner  with  General 
von  Moltke  and  Count  von  Roon  when  a  long 
telegram  came  from  the  king,  telling  of  his 
interview  with  the  French  ambassador.  In 
the  story  of  his  life  written  by  himself,  Bismarck 
tells  how,  as  he  read  the  telegram  both  Roon  and 
Moltke  groaned  in  disappointment.  He  says 
that  Moltke  seemed  to  have  grown  older  in  a 
minute.  Both  had  earnestly  hoped  that  war 
would  come.  Bismarck  took  the  dispatch,  J1J10ertened 
sat  down  at  a  table,  and  began  striking  out  the  message 
polite  words  and  the  phrases  that  showed  that 
the  meeting  had  been  a  friendly  one.  He  cut 
down  the  original  telegram  of  two  hundred 
words  to  one  of  twenty.  When  he  had  finished, 
the  message  sounded  as  if  the  French  ambassa- 
dor had  bullied  and  threatened  the  king  of 
Prussia,  while  the  latter  had  snubbed  and 
insulted  the  Frenchman.  Bismarck  read  the 
altered  telegram  to  Roon  and  Moltke.  In-  , 

An  altered 

stantly,   they  brightened  up   and  felt   better,  meaning 
"How  is  that?'7  he  asked.     "That  will  do  it," 
they  answered.     "War  is  assured." 

The  telegram  was  given  to  the  newspapers, 
and  within  twenty-four  hours,  the  people  of 
Paris  and  Berlin  were  shouting  for  war.     Napo-  J5^ress 
leon  III  hesitated,  but  he  finally  gave  in  to  his  a  hand 


156 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  157 

generals  and  his  wife  who  urged  him  to  "  avenge 
the  insult  to  the  French  nation." 

We  give  this  story  of  the  starting  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870  just  to  show  the 
tricks  of  European  diplomats.  What  Bismarck 
did  was  no  worse  than  what  the  Frenchman, 
Talleyrand,  would  have  done,  or  the  Austrian, 
Metternich,  or  several  of  the  English  or  Russian 
diplomats.  It  simply  proves  how  helpless  the 
people  of  European  countries  are,  when  the 
military  class  which  rules  them  has  decided,  for  diplomats 
its  own  power  and  glory,  on  war  with  some 
other  nation. 

The  war  was  short.  The  forces  of  France 
were  miserably  unprepared.  The  first  great 
defeat  of  the  French  army  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  the  emperor  by  the  Prussians  and  the 
overthrowing  of  the  .government  in  Paris,  where  Revolution 
a  third  republic  was  started.  One  of  the  French  treason 
generals  turned  traitor,  thinking  that  if  he 
surrendered  his  army  and  cut  short  the  war 
the  Prussians  would  force  the  French  to  take 
Napoleon  III  back  as  emperor.  Paris  was 
besieged  for  a  long  time.  The  people  lived  on 
mule  meat  and  even  on  rats  and  mice  rather 
than  surrender  to  the  Germans,  but  at  last 
they  were  starved  out,  and  peace  was  made. 

In  the  meantime,  another  of  Bismarck's  plans 
had  been  successful.     In  January,  1871,  while 


158 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  159 

the  siege  of  Paris  was  yet  going  on,  he  induced 
the   kingdoms   of   Bavaria   and   Wurtemburg, 
together  with  Baden,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  all 
the  other  little  German  states  to  join  Prussia 
in  forming  a  new  empire  of  Germany.     The  The  new 
king  of  Prussia  was  to  be  " German  Emperor,"  Germany 
and  the  people  of  Germany  were  to  elect  rep- 
resentatives   to    the    Reichstag    or    Imperial ' 
Congress.     Although  at  the  outset,  the  war  was 
between  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  and  the  empire 
of  France,  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  by 
the  republic  of  France  and  the  empire  of  Ger- 
many. 

Bismarck  was  very  harsh  in  his  terms  of 
peace.  France  was  condemned  to  pay  an 
indemnity  of  5,000,000,000  francs  (nearly  one 
billion  dollars)  and  certain  parts  of  France  were 
to  be  occupied  by  the  German  troops  until  this 
money  was  fully  paid.  Two  counties  of  France, v 
Alsace  and  Lorraine,  were  to  be  annexed  to 
Germany.  Alsace  was  inhabited  largely  by 
people  of  German  descent,  but  there  were  many 
French  mingled  with  them,  and  the  whole 
province  had  belonged  to  France  so  long  that 
its  people  felt  themselves  to  be  wholly  French. 
Lorraine  contained  very  few  Germans,  and  was 
taken,  contrary  to  Bismarck's  best  judgment,  dMomatic 
because  it  contained  the  important  city  of  blunder 
Metz,  which  was  strongly  fortified.  Here  the 


160  The   Story   of 

military  chiefs  overruled  Bismarck.  The  desire 
among  the  French  for  revenge  on  Germany  for 
taking  this  French-speaking  province  has  proved 
that  Bismarck  was  right.  It  was  a  blunder  of 
the  worst  kind. 

The  policy  of  " blood  and  iron'7  had  been 
successful.  From  a  second  rate  power,  Prussia 
had  risen,  under  Bismarck's  leadership,  to 
become  the  strongest  military  force  in  Europe. 
Schleswig  had  been  torn  from  Danish,  Holstein 
from  Austrian  control.  Hanover  had  been 
forcibly  annexed,  and  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
wrested  from  France.  The  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  countries  were  bitterly 
unhappy  at  being  placed  under  the  Prussian 
military  rule.  Moreover,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  great  deal  of  this  growth  in  power 
had  been  at  the  expense  of  the  liberty  of  the 
common  people.  The  revolution  of  1848  had 
demanded  free  speech,  free  newspapers,  the 
right  to  vote,  and  the  right  to  elect  men  to  a 
congress  or  parliament,  and  while  some  of  these 
rights  had  been  granted,  still  the  whole  country 
was  under  the  control  of  the  war  department. 
The  emperor,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  could  suppress  any  newspaper  and  dismiss 
the  congress  whenever  he  might  think  this 
proper.  The  Reichstag  was,  as  it  has  been 
called,  a  big  debating  society,  whose  members 


The  Map  of  Europe  161 

had  the  right  to  talk,  but  were  not  allowed  to 
pass  any  laws  that  were  contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  the  military  leaders. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  was  the  reason  for  the  revolts  of  1848  all  over 
Europe? 

(6)  What  was  the  object  of  the  "Holy  Alliance"? 

(c)  What  was  Bismarck's  purpose  in  building  up  a  strong 
army? 

(d)  How  did  Bismarck  defeat  Austria? 

(e)  What  is  a  war  indemnity? 

(/)   Explain  how  Bismarck  made  enemies  for  Napoleon  III. 

(0)  Why  were  the  French  alarmed  when  Spain  offered  its 
crown  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern? 

(h)  What  means  did  Bismarck  use  to  bring  on  war  with 
France? 

(ft   Was  Prussia's  victory  a  good  thing  for  her  people? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE   BALANCE   OF  POWER 

The  recovery  of  France. —  The  jealousy  of  the  powers. — 
The  policy  of  uniting  against  the  strongest. —  The  dream  of 
Russia. —  A  war  of  liberation. —  The  powers  interfere  in 
favor  of  the  Turk. —  The  Congress  of  Berlin. —  Bismarck's 
Triple  Alliance. —  France  and  Russia  are  driven  together. — 
The  race  for  war  preparation. —  The  growth  of  big  navies. 

Under  the  third  republic,*  France  recovered 
very  rapidly  from  the  terrible  blow  dealt  her 
by  Germany.  Her  people  worked  hard  and 

Thrift  and  save(^  t^ie^r  money-  In  IGSS  than  two  years, 
industry  they  had  paid  off  the  last  cent  of  the  one  billion 
dollar  indemnity,  and  the  German  troops  were 
obliged  to  go  home.  France  had  adopted  the 
same  military  system  that  Germany  had,  and 
required  all  of  her  young  men  to  serve  two  years 
in  the  army  and  be  ready  at  a  moment's  notice 
to  rush  to  arms.  She  began  also  to  build  up  a 
strong  navy,  and  to  spread  her  colonies  in  Africa 
and  other  parts  of  the  world.  This  rapid 
recovery  of  France  surprised  and  disturbed 
Bismarck,  who  thought  that  never  again,  after 
rises  again  the  war  of  1870,  would  she  become  a  strong 
power.  He  had  tried  to  renew  the  old  "Holy 

The  first  republic  began  in  1792,  when  King  Louis  XVI  was  beheaded, 
the  second  in  1848  when  Louis  Philippe,  the  "  citizen  king,"  was  driven  out. 

162 


The  Map  of  Europe  163 

Alliance"  between  Germany,  Russia,  and  Aus- 
tria with  the  idea  of  preventing  the  spread  of 
republics.  These  were  the  three  nations  which 
gave  their  people  very  few  rights,  and  which 
stood  for  the  "  divine  right  of  kings"  and  for 
the  crushing  of  all  republics.  Bismarck  called 
this  new  combination  the  "  Drei-kaiser-bund" 
or  three-emperor-bond.  He  himself  says  that 
the  proposed  alliance  fell  to  pieces  because  of  the  emperors 
lies  and  treachery  of  Prince  Gortchakoff,  the 
Russian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

An  incident  which  happened  in  1875  helped 
to  estrange  Germany  from  Russia.  As  was 
previously  said,  Bismarck  was  astonished  and 
alarmed  when  he  saw  how  quickly  France  was 
getting  over  the  effects  of  the  war.  In  1875, 
some  trouble  came  up  again  between  France  and 
Germany,  and  Bismarck  a  second  time  planned 
to  make  war  on  the  republic  and  complete  the 
task  that  he  had  left  unfinished  in  1871.  He 
wanted  to  reduce  France  to  the  rank  of  a 
second  class  power,  on  a  par  with  Spain  and 
Denmark.  This  time,  however,  England  and 
Russia  growled  ominously.  They  notified  Bis- 
marck that  they  would  not  stand  by  and  see  of  the187 
France  crushed  —  not  from  any  love  of  France,  growing 

'    strength  of 

but  because  they  were  jealous  of  Prussia  and  Prussia 
afraid  that   the   Germans  might   become   too 
powerful   in   Europe.     Accordingly,    Bismarck 


164 


The  Story  of 


PETER   THE    GREAT 


The 

balance  of 
power 


had  to  give  up  his  idea  of  war.  Prussia  was 
strong,  but  she  could  not  fight  England,  Russia, 
and  France  combined.  However,  he  remem- 
bered that  England  and  Russia  had  spoiled 
his  plans  and  waited  for  a  chance  to  get  revenge. 
The  great  object  of  all  European  diplomats 
was  to  maintain  what  they  called  "the  balance 
of  power."  By  this  they  meant  that  no  one 


The  Map  of  Europe  165 

country  was  to  be  allowed  to  grow  so  strong 
that  she  could  defy  the  rest  of  Europe.  When- 
ever one  nation  grew  too  powerful,  the  others 
combined  to  pull  her  down. 

In  the  meantime,  trouble  was  again  brewing 
among  the  Balkan  nations,  which  were  still  sub- 
ject to  the  Turks.  Revolts  had  broken .  out 
among  the  Serbians,  and  the  people  of  Bosnia 
and  Bulgaria.  As  has  already  been  told, 
these  nations  are  Slavic,  cousins  of  the  Russians,  of  the  Slavs 
and  they  have  always  looked  upon  Russia  as 
their  big  brother  and  protector.  Any  keen- 
eared,  intelligent  Russian  can  understand  the 
language  of  the  Serbs,  it  is  so  much  like  his  own 
tongue.  (Bel-grad,  Petro-grad ;  the  word  ' '  grad' ' 
means  "city"  in  both  languages.) 

Not  only  was  Russia  hostile  toward  the  Turks 
because  they  were  oppressing  the  little  Slav 
states,  but  she  had  reasons  of  her  own  for 
wanting  to  see  Turkey  overthrown.  Ever  since 
the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  Russia  had  had  her 
eye  upon  Constantinople.  Peter  had  con- 
quered the  district  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 

and  had  founded  St.  Petersburg*  there,  just  to 

J  warmer 

give  Russia  a  port  which  was  free  of  ice.     In  the  seas 
same  way,  other  czars  who  followed  him  had 
fought  their  way  southward  to  the  Black  Sea, 
seeking  for  a  chance  to  trade  with  the  Mediter- 

*Now  called  Petrograd. 


166 


The  Story  of 


The 

mosque  of 
St.  Sophia 


ENTRANCE    TO    THE    MOSQUE    OF    ST.    SOPHIA 

ranean  world.  But  the  Black  Sea  was  like  a 
bottle,  and  the  Turks  at  Constantinople  were 
able  to  stop  the  Russian  trade  at  any  time 
they  might  wish  to  do  so.  Russia  is  an  agri- 
cultural country,  and  must  ship  her  grain  to 
countries  that  are  more  densely  inhabited,  to 
exchange  it  for  their  manufactures. 

Therefore,  it  has  been  the  dream  of  every 
Russian  czar  that  one  day  Russia  might  own 
Constantinople.  Again,  this  city,  in  ancient 
days,  was  the  home  of  the  Greek  church,  as 
Jlome  was  the  capital  of  the  western  Catholic 
church.  The  Russians  are  all  Greek  Catholics, 
and  every  Russian  looks  forward  to  the  day 


The  Map  of  Europe  167 

when  the  great  church  of  St.  Sophia,  which  is 
now  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  shall  once  more 
be  the  home  of  Christian  worship.  With  this 
plan  in  mind,  Russian  diplomats  were  only  too 
happy  to  stir  up  trouble  for  the  Turks  among 
the  Slavic  peoples  of  the  Balkan  states,  as 
Serbia,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  and  Montenegro 

are  called.     Glance  at  the  two  following  maps  of  _ 

The  losses 

southeastern  Europe,  and  see  how  Turkey  had  of  Turkey 
been  reduced  in  size  during  the  two  hundred 
years  which  followed  the  Turkish  defeat  at  the 
gates  of  Vienna  by  John  Sobieski  and  the  Aus- 
trians  (page  81).  The  state  of  Bessarabia  had 
changed  hands  two  or  three  times,  remaining 
finally  in  the  hands  of  Russia. 

The  revolts  of  the  Balkan  peoples  in  1875  and 
1876  were  hailed  with  joy  among  the  Russians, 
and  the  government  at  St.  Petersburg  lost  no  RUSSiawins 
time  in  rushing  to  the  aid  of  the  Balkan  states  freedom  for 

the  Balkan 

and  declaring  war  on  Turkey.  After  a  short  Slavs 
but  stubbornly  contested  conflict,  Russia  and 
the  little  countries  were  victors.  A  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  San  Stephano,  by  which 
Roumania,  Serbia,  and  Bulgaria  were  to  be 
recognized  by  Turkey  as  independent  states. 
The  boundaries  of  Bulgaria  were  to  reach 
to  the  Aegean  Sea,  including  most  of  Macedonia, 
thus  cutting  off  Turkey  from  her  county  of 
Albania,  except  by  water.  Bear  this  in  mind, 


168 


The   Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe 


169 


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(170) 


The  Map  of  Europe  171 

for  it  will  help  you  to  understand  Russia's 
later  feeling  when  Bulgaria  in  1915  joined  the 
ranks  of  her  enemies. 

The  matter  was  all  settled,  and  Turkey  had 
accepted  these  terms,  when  once  more  the 
diplomats  of  Europe  began  to  meddle.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  Russia  three  years  before  _ 

The  powers 

had  prevented  a  second  war  against  France  intervene 
planned  by  Bismarck.  It  was  very  easy 
for  him  to  persuade  Austria  and  England  that 
if  Russia  were  allowed  to  cripple  Turkey  and 
set  up  three  new  kingdoms  which  would  be 
under  her  control,  she  would  speedily  become 
the  strongest  nation  in  Europe.  The  "  balance 
of  power"  would  be  disturbed.  England  and 
Austria  sided  with  Germany,  and  a  meeting  of 
statesmen  and  diplomats  was  called  at  Berlin 
in  1878  to  decide  once  more  what  should  be  the 
map  of  Europe.  Representatives  were  present 
from  all  the  leading  European  countries.  Even 
Turkey  had  two  men  at  the  meeting,  but  the 
three  men  who  really  controlled  were  Bismarck, 
Count  Andrassy  of  Austria,  and  Lord  Beacons- 
field  (Benjamin  Disraeli)  of  England.  Russia 
was  robbed  of  a  great  part  of  the  fruits  of  her 
victory.  Bulgaria  was  left  partially  under  the 

control   of  Turkey,   in  that   she  had   to  pay  TheBalkan 

problem 
Turkey  a  large  sum  of  money  each  year  for  the  unsolved 

privilege  of  being  left  alone.  Her  territory  was 


172 


The   Story   of 


Austria 

administers 

Bosnia 


New  com- 
binations 
among  the 
powers 


made  much  smaller  than  had  been  agreed  to  by 
the  treaty  of  San  Stephano.  In  fact  less  than 
one-third  of  the  Bulgarians  were  living  within 
the  boundaries  finally  agreed  upon  by  the  con- 
gress. A  great  part  of  the  Serbians  were  still 
left  under  Turkish  rule,  as  were  the  Greeks  of 
Thessaly  and  Epirus.  The  two  counties  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  still  to  belong  to 
Turkey,  but  as  the  Turks  did  not  seem  to  be 
strong  enough  to  keep  order  there,  Austria  was 
to  take  control  of  them  and  run  their  govern- 
ment, although  their  taxes  were  still  to  be  paid 
to  Turkey.  Austria  solemnly  agreed  never  to 
take  them  from  Turkey.  Russia,  naturally, 
was  very  unhappy  over  this  arrangement, 
and  so  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan 
kingdoms,  for  they  had  hoped  that  now  they 
were  at  last  to  be  freed  from  the  oppression  of 
their  ancient  enemies,  the  Turks.  Thus  the 
Congress  of  Berlin,  like  that  of  Vienna  in  1815 
(see  page  127),  laid  the  foundation  for  future 
wars  and  revolutions. 

Bismarck  now  set  out  to  strengthen  Germany 
by  making  alliances  with  other  European  states. 
He  first  made  up  with  his  old  enemy,  Austria. 
Thanks  to  the  liberal  treatment  that  he  had 
given  this  country  after  her  disastrous  war 
of '1866,  he  was  able  to  get  the  Austrians  to  join 
Germany  in  an  alliance  which  states  that  if  two 


The  Map  of  Europe  173 

countries  of  Europe  should  ever  attack  one  of 
the  two  allies,  the  other  would  rush  to  her  help. 

The  Italians  were  friendly  to  Germany,  for 
they  remembered  that  they  had  gotten  Venetia 
from  Austria  through  the  help  of  the  Prussians, 
but  they  had  always  looked  upon  the  Austrians 
as  their  worst  enemies.  It  was  a  wonderful 
thing,  then,  when  Bismarck  finally  induced 
Italy  to  join  with  Austria  and  Germany  in  a 
' '  Dreibund' '  or  "  Triple  Alliance. ' ' 

The  Italian  people  had  been  very  friendly  to  bund" 
the  French,  and  this  going  over  to  their  enemies 
would  never  have  been  possible  but  for  an  act 
of  France  which  greatly  angered  Italy.  For 
many  years,  France  had  been  in  control  of 
Algeria  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa.  This 
country  had  once  been  a  nest  of  pirates,  and  the 
French  had  gone  there  originally  to  clean  them 
out.  Next  to  Algeria  on  the  east  is  the  county 
of  Tunis,  which,  as  you  will  see  by  the  map,  is 
very  close  to  Sicily  and  Italy.  The  Italians 
had  been  looking  longingly  at  this  district  for 
some  time,  intending  to  organize  an  expedition 
and  forcibly  annex  it  to  their  kingdom.  They 
waited  too  long,  however,  and  one  fine  day  in 
1881  they  found  the  prize  gone, — France  had 
seized  this  county  for  herself.  It  was  Italy's  itaiian 
anger  over  this  act  of  France  more  than  any-  ^jj^  t 
thing  else  that  enabled  Bismarck  to  get  her  France 


174 


The   Story   of 


The  Dual 
Alliance 


Again  the 
balance  of 
power 


into  an  alliance  with  Germany  and  her  ancient 
enemy,  Austria. 

France  now  saw  herself  hemmed  in  on  the 
east  by  a  chain  of  enemies.  It  looked  as  though 
Bismarck  might  declare  war  upon  the  republic 
at  any  time,  and  be  perfectly  safe  from  inter- 
ference, with  Austria  and  Italy  to  protect  him. 
Russia,  smarting  under  the  treatment  which  she 
had  been  given  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  was 
full  of  resentment  against  Germany.  Both 
the  French  and  the  Russians  felt  themselves 
threatened  by  Bismarck's  Dreibund,  and  so, 
in  self-defense  each  country  made  advance 
toward  the  other.  The  result  was  the  "Dual 
Alliance"  between  France  and  Russia,  which 
bound  either  country  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the 
other  in  case  of  an  attack  by  two  powers  at 
once. 

In  this  way,  the  balance  of  power,  disturbed 
by  Bismarck's  "  Dreibund,"  was  again  restored. 
Many  people  thought  the  forming  of  the  two 
alliances  a  fine  thing,  "for,"  said  they,  "each 
party  is  now  too  strong  to  be  attacked  by  the 
other.  Therefore,  we  shall  never  again  have 
war  among  the  great  powers." 

England  was  not  tied  up  with  either  alliance. 
On  account  of  her  position  on  an  island,  and 
because  of  her  strong  navy,  she  did  not  feel 
obliged  to  keep  a  large  standing  army  such  as 


The  Map  of  Europe  175 

the  great  powers  on  the  continent  maintained. 
These  nations  were  kept  in  constant  fear  of 
war.  As  soon  as  France  equipped  her  army 
with  machine  guns,  Germany  and  Austria  had 
to  do  the  same.  As  soon  as  the  Germans  in- 
vented a  new  magazine  rifle,  the  Russians  and 
French  had  to  invent  similar  arms  for  their 
soldiers.  If  Germany  passed  a  law  compelling 
all  men  up  to  the  age  of  forty-five  to  report 

for  two  weeks'   military  training  once  every  Eur°Pe 

an  armed 

year,  France  and  Russia  had  to  do  the  same,  camp 
If  Italy  built  some  powerful  warships,  France 
and  Russia  had  to  build  still  more  powerful 
ones.  This  led  to  still  larger  ships  built  by 
Germany  and  Italy.  If  France  built  a  fleet 
of  one  hundred  torpedo  boats,  the  Triple 
Alliance  had  to  "go  her  one  better"  by  building 
one  hundred  and  fifty.  If  Germany  equipped 
her  army  with  war  balloons,  Russia  and  France 
had  to  do  the  same.  If  France  invented  a  new 
kind  of  heavy  artillery,  Germany  and  Austria 
built  a  still  bigger  gun. 

This  mad  race  for  war  equipment  was  bad 
enough  when  it  had  to  do  only  with  the  five 
nations  in  the  two  alliances  about  which  you 
have  been  told.  However,  the  death  of  the  old 
emperor  of  Germany  in  1888  brought  to  the 
throne  his  grandson,  the  present  Kaiser,*  and  he 

*The  present  Kaiser's  father  reigned  only  ninety-nine  days,  as  he  was 
a  very  sick  man  at  the  time  of  the  old  emperor's  death. 


176  The   Story   of 

The  Td  C  t  f°rmed  a  plan  for  making  Germany  the  leading 
the  Sea  nation  on  the  sea  as  Bismarck  had  made  her 
on  the  land.  He  saw  France  and  England 
seizing  distant  colonies  and  dividing  up  Africa 
between  them.  He  at  once  announced  that 
Germany,  too,  must  have  colonies  to  which  to 
export  her  manufactures  and  from  which  to 
bring  back  tropical  products.  This  meant  a 
strong  navy  to  protect  these  colonies,  and  the 
race  with  England  was  on.  As  soon  as  Germany 
built  some  new  battleships,  England  built  still 
others,  larger  and  with  heavier  guns.  The  next 
year,  Germany  would  build  still  larger  ships, 
and  the  next  England  would  come  back  with 
still  heavier  guns.  As  fast  as  England  built 
ships,  Germany  built  them.  Now,  each  battle- 
ship costs  from  five  to  fifteen  million  dollars,  and 


Taxes  and    ft  joes  no^  take  long  before  a  race  of  this  kind 

still  more 

taxes  sends  the  taxes  too  high  for  people  to  stand. 

There  was  unrest  throughout  Europe  and  mur- 
murs of  discontent  were  heard  among  the 
working  classes. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  How  did  France  pay  off  her  war  indemnity  so  promptly? 
(6)  Why  did  Bismarck's  three-emperor-alliance  fail? 
(a)  What  is  meant  by  "the  balance  of  power"? 

(d)  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Serbs,  Bulgarians,  etc. 
before  1878? 

(e)  Why  does  Russia  covet  Constantinople? 


The  Map  of  Europe  177 

(/)  Why  did  the  powers  prevent  the  treaty  of  San  Stephano 
from  being  carried  out? 

(0)  What  wrongs  were  done  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin? 
(K)  Why  did  Bismarck  form  the  Triple  Alliance? 

(i}  How  was  he  able  to  induce  Italy  to  join  her  old  enemy, 
Austria? , 

(j)  What  was  the  effect  of  the  formation  of  the  Triple 
Alliance  on  France  and  Russia? 

(fc)  What  result  had  the  formation  of  the  two  alliances  on 
the  gun-industry? 

(1)  How  was  England  brought  into   the  race  for  war 
equipment? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE   "ENTENTE   CORDIALE" 

Ancient  enemies. —  England  and  France  in  Africa. —  A 
collision  at  Fashoda. —  Germany  offers  to  help  France. — 
Delcasse  the  peacemaker. —  A  French-English  agreement. — 
Friendship  takes  the  place  of  hostility. —  England's  relations 
with  Italy,  Russia,  and  Germany. —  Germans  cultivate  the 
friendship  and  trade  of  Turkey. —  The  Morocco-Algeciras 
incident. —  The  question  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. — 
England  joins  France  and  Russia  to  form  the  " Triple 
Entente." —  The  Agadir  incident. 

England  and  France  had  never  been  friendly. 

Ancient        There  had  been  wars  between  them,  off  and  on, 

enemies       for  five  hundred  years.    The  only  time  that  they 

had  fought  on  the  same  side  was  in  the  campaign 

against  Russia  in  1855,  but  even  then  there  was 

no  real  sympathy  between  them. 

In  the  year  1882,  events  happened  in  Egypt 
which  gave  England  an  excuse  for  interfering 
with  the  government  of  that  country.  Egypt 
was  a  part  of  the  Turkish  empire,  but  so  long 
as  it  paid  a  certain  amount  of  money  to 
Constantinople,  the  Turks  did  not  care  very 
much  how  it  was  governed.  But  now  a  wild 
chief  of  the  desert  had  announced  himself  as 
the  prophet  Mohammed  come  to  earth  again, 
and  a  great  many  of  the  desert  tribesmen  had 
178 


The  Map  of  Europe 


179 


joined  him.  They  cut  to  pieces  one  or  two 
English  armies  in  Egypt,  and  killed  General 
Gordon,  a  famous  English  soldier.  It  was  1898 
before  the  English  were  able  to  defeat  this  horde.  The  Aiabs 

Lord  Kitchener  finally  beat  them  and  extended  vs.  Gordon 

and 
the  English  power  to  the  city  of  Khartoom  Kitchener 

on  the  Nile. 


AN   ARAB    SHEIK    AND    HIS    STAFF 

In  the  meantime,  the  English  millionaire, 
Cecil  Rhodes,  had  formed  a  plan  for  a  railroad 
which  should  run  the  entire  length  of  Africa 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cairo.  It  was 
England's  ambition  to  control  all  the  territory 
through  which  this  road  should  run.  But  the  Th®"CaPe 

to  Cairo" 

French,  too,  were  spreading  out  over  Africa,  railroad 
Their  expeditions  through  the  Sahara  Desert 
had  joined  their  colonies  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  to 
those  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  others 
along  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.     In  this  same  year, 


180  The  Story  of 

1898,  while  Lord  Kitchener  was  still  fighting 
the  Arabs,  a  French  expedition  under  Major 
Marchand  struggled  across  the  Sahara  and 
reached  the  Nile  at  Fashoda,  several  miles  above 
Khartoom.  Marchand  planted  the  French  flag 
and  announced  that  he  took  possession  of  this 
territory  for  the  republic  of  France. 

The  English  were  very  indignant  when  they 
heard  of  what  Marchand  had  done.  If  France 
held  Fashoda,  their  "Cape  to  Cairo"  railroad 
was  cut  right  in  the  middle,  and  they  could 
advance  their  territory  no  farther  up  the  valley 
The  quarrel  of  the  Nile.  They  notified  France  that  this 

over 

Fashoda  was  English  land.  Marchand  retorted  that  no 
Englishman  had  ever  set  foot  there,  and  that 
the  French  flag  would  never  be  hauled  down 
after  it  had  once  been  planted  on  the  Nile. 
Excitement  ran  high.  The  French  people  had 
no  love  for  England,  and  they  encouraged 
Marchand  to  remain  where  he  was.  The 
English  newspapers  demanded  that  he  be 
withdrawn.  Germany,  which  had  already  be- 
gun its  campaign  to  wrest  from  England  the 
leading  place  on  the  ocean,  was  delighted  at  the 

Germany     prospect   of   a  war  between  France   and  the 

encourages 

France  British.  The  German  diplomats  patted  France 
on  the  back,  and  practically  assured  her  of 
German  help  in  case  it  came  to  a  war  with 
England. 


The  Map  of  Europe  181 

Germany  now  felt  that  she  had  nothing  more 
to  fear  from  France.  The  French  population 
was  not  increasing,  while  Germany  was  steadily 
growing  in  numbers.  It  was  England  whom 
Germany  saw  across  her  path  toward  control 
of  the  sea. 

There  was  a  man  in  France,  however,  who 
had  no  thought  of  making  up  with  Germany. 
The  memory  of  the  war  of  1870  and  of  the  lost 
provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  was  very 
strong  with  him.  This  was  Theophile  Delcasse, 
a  little  man  with  a  large  head  and  a  great  brain. 
He  refused  to  be  tempted  by  the  offers  of 
German  help,  thinking  that  England,  with  its 
free  government,  was  a  much  better  friend  for  r>eicassg 
the  republic  than  the  military  empire  of  Ger-  |r^f^d  to 
many  could  be.  Germany 

Just  when  the  trouble  was  at  its  height, 
the  English  ambassador  came  to  see  Mr.  Del- 
casse, who  at  that  time  was  in  charge  of  the 
French  foreign  office.  He  had  in  his  pocket 
an  ultimatum,  that  is  to  say,  a  final  notice  to 
France  that  she  must  give  in  or  England  would 
declare  war  on  her.  As  he  walked  into  Del- 
casse's  presence,  he  began  fumbling  with  the 
top  button  of  his  coat.  "  Don't  touch  that 
button,"  said  Delcasse  quickly.  "Drop  your 
hand.  You  have  something  in  your  pocket 
which  must  not  be  taken  out.  It  is  a  threat, 


182 


The   Story   of 


English 
gratitude 


A  diplo- 
matic king 


and  if  I  see  it,  France  will  fight.  Sit  down. 
Let  us  talk  this  matter  over  coolly.  Matters 
will  adjust  themselves  all  right  in  the  end." 
And  they  did.  Delcasse  was  finally  able  to 
quiet  the  French  people,  to  recall  Marchand 
from  Fashoda  and  to  persuade  France  to 
refuse  the  offer  of  German  friendship.  England 
was  given  a  free  hand  in  Egypt,  without  any 
interference  from  the  French.  Naturally  the 
English  were  very  grateful  to  Delcasse  for  hav- 
ing refused  to  profit  by  German  help  and  declare 
war.  In  return  for  the  French  agreement  to 
stay  out  of  Egypt,  the  English  promised  to  help 
France  get  control  of  Morocco. 

Very  soon  after  this,  Queen  Victoria  of  Eng- 
land died,  and  her  son,  Edward  VII,  became 
king.  He  had  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  in 
France,  and  was  very  fond  of  the  French  and  was 
popular  with  them.  He  saw  the  growing  power 
of  Germany,  and  knew  that  England  could  not 
afford  to  be  without  a  friend  in  Europe.  He 
did  his  best  to  bring  about  a  feeling  of  friend- 
ship between  the  English  and  the  French,  and 
was  very  successful  in  doing  so.  He  made 
frequent  visits  to  France,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  cordiality.  In  return  the  English 
entertained  the  president  of  France  in  London 
in  a  princely  fashion.  French  warships  paid 
friendly  visits  to  English  waters,  and  the 


The  Map  of  Europe  183 

k  sailors  mingled  with  each  other  and  did  their 
best  to  understand  each  other's  language.  All 
France,  and  England  as  well,  welcomed  the 
beginning  of  the  "  Entente  Cordiale,"  or  friendly 
understanding  between  the  two  nations.  and  Italy 

England  also  went  out  of  her  way  to  cultivate 
a  friendly  understanding  with  Italy.  With  the 
other  nations  of  Europe  England  had  no  great 
friendship.  Between  England  and  Russia, 
there  had  been  a  hostile  feeling  for  a  long  time, . 
for  the  British  felt  that  the  Russians  would  like 
nothing  better  than  to  stretch  their  empire  from 
Siberia,  down  to  include  British  India,  or  at 
least  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  where  the 
British  were  in  control. 

The  emperor  of  Germany,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  planning  for  the  future  growth  of  the  trade 
of  his  country.  Since  his  coming  to  the  throne, 
Germany  had  made  wonderful  progress  in  the 
direction  of  manufactures.  She  had  become 
one  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  world.  One  of 
her  chief  questions  was,  where  to  market  these  Germans 
goods.  In  1896  the  emperor  paid  a  visit  to 
Syria  and  Turkey.  He  was  received  with  East 
great  enthusiasm  by  the  Turks,  who  were  glad 
to  have  one  strong  friend  among  the  powers  of 
Europe.  Soon  afterwards  the  Germans  began 
to  get  more  and  more  of  the  trade  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  A  German  company  was 


The  Map  of  Europe  185 

given  permission  by  the  Turks  to  build  a  rail- 
road across  Turkey  to  the  Persian  Gulf  through 
Bagdad.  German  railways  ran  through  Aus-  g]jedad 
tria-Hungary,  which  was  Germany's  ally,  to  railway 
Constantinople  and  Salonika,  the  two  greatest 
ports  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  This  short  over- 
land route  to  Persia  was  looked  upon  with  sus- 
picion and  distrust  by  the  English,  whose  ships 
up  to  this  time  had  carried  on  almost  all  of 
Europe's  commerce  with  India  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries. 

Germany  was  reaching  out  for  colonies.     She 

secured  land  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  _ 

tjennany 

on  the  east  as  well.  A  tract  of  land  in  the  corner  on  the  sea 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  also  fell  to  her  share. 
Islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  were  seized.  Her 
foreign  trade  was  growing  by  leaps  and  bounds, 
and  she  threatened  to  take  away  from  England 
a  great  deal  of  the  latter's  commerce. 

The  German  emperor  announced  that  he 
must  always  be  consulted  whenever  any  changes 
of  territory  took  place,  no  matter  in  what  part 
of  the  earth.  Therefore  in  1905  when  France, 
with  the  help  of  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  told 
the  sultan  of  Morocco  that  he  had  to  behave 
himself,  the  German  emperor  in  person  made 
a  visit  to  Morocco  and  assured  the  sultan 
that  he  didn't  have  to  pay  any  attention  to 
France. 


186 


The   Story   of 


. 

Algeciras 

incident 


. 
Bosnian 

trouble 


Promises 


d 

and  kings 


There  was  a  great  deal  of  excitement  over  this 
incident,  and  a  meeting  was  held  at  Algeciras, 
Spain,  where  representatives  of  all  the  great 
powers  came  together.  In  the  end,  France  and 

£ 

England  were  upheld,  for  even  Italy,  Germany's 
ally,  voted  against  the  Germans.  On  the  other 
hand,  Delcasse,  the  Frenchman  who  settled 
the  Fashoda  trouble,  was  compelled  to  resign 
his  position  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
because  the  Germans  objected  to  him,  and 
the  French  felt  that  Germany  had  humiliated 
them. 

In  1908,  the  "  young  Turk"  party  in  Constan- 
tinople (the  party  which  stood  for  progress  and 
for  more  popular  government)  drove  the  old 
sultan  off  his  throne,  and  announced  that  there 
should  be  a  Turkish  parliament,  or  congress,  to 
which  all  parts  of  "the  empire  should  send 
representatives. 

You  will  remember  that  two  counties  of 
the  Turkish  empire,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
had  been  turned  over  to  Austria  to  rule  by  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878.  Austria  at  the 
time  solemnly  promised  that  she  would  never 
try  to  annex  these  provinces.  In  1908,  how- 
ever, she  forgot  all  about  her  promise.  When 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  wanted  to  elect  men  to 
represent  them  in  the  new  Turkish  parliament, 
Austria  calmly  told  them  that  after  this  they 


The  Map  of  Europe  187 

should  consider  themselves  part  of  the  Austrian 
Empire,  that  they  belonged  to  Turkey  no 
longer. 

The  two  provinces  were  inhabited  largely 
by  Serbs,  and  all  Serbia  had  looked  forward  to 
the  day  when  they  should  once  more  be  joined 
to  herself.  These  states,  like  Montenegro,  had 
been  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Serbia.  As 
long  as  they  were  in  dispute  between  Austria 
and  Turkey,  Serbia  had  hopes  of  regaining 
them,  but  when  Austria  thus  forcibly  annexed 
them,  it  seemed  to  the  Serbs  that  they  were 
lost  forever. 

Serbia  appealed  to  Russia,  for  as  was  said, 
all  the  Slavic  states  look  upon  Russia  as  their  , 

An  appeal 

big  brother.  The  Russians  were  highly  indig-  to  Russia 
nant  at  this  breaking  of  her  promises  by  Aus- 
tria, and  the  czar  talked  of  war.  His  generals 
and  war  ministers,  however,  dissuaded  him. 
"Oh,  no,  your  majesty,"  said  they,  "we  are 
in  no  shape  to  fight  Austria  and  Germany. 
Our  army  was  badly  disorganized  in  the  Jap- 
anese war  three  years  ago,  and  we  shall  not  be 
ready  for  another  fight  for  some  time  to  come." 
Russia  protested,  but  the  German  emperor 
notified  her  that  he  stood  by  Austria,  and  asked 
Russia  if  she  was  ready  to  fight.  Russia  and  The  Dual 
France  were  not  ready,  and  so  they  were  Alliance  is 

not  ready 

obliged  to  back  down,  but  did  so  with  a  bitter  to  fight 


188  The  Story  of 

feeling  toward  the  " central  empires,"  as  Ger- 
many and  Austria  are  called. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  England  for  a 
long  time  had  been  suspicious  of  Russia,  fearing 
that  the  northern  power  was  aiming  at  control 
of  India.  Of  late  this  hostile  feeling  had  been 
dying  out,  especially  as  the  friendship  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  grew  stronger.  It 
was  impossible  for  Russia,  France's  partner  in 
the  Dual  Alliance,  to  remain  unfriendly  to 
England,  France's  ally  in  the  "  Entente  Cor- 
diale."  Both  England  and  Russia  felt  that  the 
growth  of  Germany  and  the  ambition  of  her  war 
chiefs  threatened  them  more  than  they  had 
ever  threatened  each  other. 

In    1907   Russia   and   England   reached   an 

and^Russia  understanding  by  which  they  marked  off  two 

compose       great  parts  of  Persia  for  trading  purposes,  each 

differences   agreeing  to  stay  in  her  own  portion,  and  not 

disturb   the   traders   of   the   other   country  in 

theirs.     After  this  Russia,  England,  and  France 

were  usually  found  acting  together  in  European 

diplomacy,    under   the   name   of   the    "  Triple 

Entente."     The  "balance  of  power"  had  been 

leaning  toward  Germany  and  her  allies,   but 

the  English  navy,  added  to  the  scales  on  the 

other  side,  more  than  balanced  the  advantage 

in  land  forces  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 

Three    years    later,     Morocco    again    gave 


The  Map  of  Europe  189 

trouble,  and  France,  with  England's  backing 
and  Spain's  friendship,  sent  her  troops  among 
the  Moors  to  enforce  law  and  order.  Any  one 
could  see  that  with  Tunis  and  Algeria  already 
in  French  hands,  it  was  only  a  question  of  a 
little  while  before  Morocco  would  be  theirs  also. 
This  time  Germany  rushed  her  warship 
Panther  to  the  Moorish  port  of  Agadir.  This 

r  Panther 

was  a  threat  against  France,  and  the  French  at  Agadir 
appealed  to  England  to  know  whether  they 
could  look  to  her  for  support.  Russia  was  now 
in  much  better  shape  for  war  than  she  had  been 
three  years  before,  and  notified  France  that  she 
was  ready  to  give  her  support.  Therefore,  when 
Mr.  Lloyd-George,  the  little  Welshman  who  was 
really  the  leader  of  the  British  government, 
stood  up  in  his  place  in  the  English  parliament 
and  told  the  world  that  "to  the  last  ship,  the 
last  man,  the  last  penny,"  England  would 
support  France,  it  was  plain  that  somebody 
would  have  to  back  down  or  else  start  a  tre- 
mendous European  war. 

It  was  now  Germany's  turn  to  give  way. 
Strong  as  she  was,  she  did  not  propose  to  fight  j^aesr^any 
France,  Russia,  and  England  combined.     So,  backdown 
although  the  French  gave  Germany  a  few  square 
miles  of  land  in  central  Africa  in  return  for  the 
Kaiser's  agreement  to  let  France  have  her  way 
in  Morocco,   the  result  was  a  backdown  for 


190  The   Story   of 

Germany,   and  it  left  scars  which  would  not 
heal. 

During  all  this  period  from  1898  to  1914 
there  were  incidents  happening,  any  one  of 
which  might  have  started  the  world  war. 
Fashoda,  Algeciras,  Bosnia,  Agadir  —  each  time 
it  seemed  as  if  only  a  miracle  could  avert  the 
conflict.  Europe  was  like  a  powder  magazine. 
No  man  knew  when  the  spark  might  fall  that 
would  bring  on  the  explosion. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  were  the  plans  of  the  English  regarding  Africa? 
(6)  How    did    Major    Marchand    threaten    the    peace    of 
Europe? 

(c)  Why  was  Germany  ready  to  help  France? 

(d)  Why  did  Delcasse  desire  to  keep  peace  with  England? 

(e)  Why  was  England  suspicious  of  Russia? 

(/)  Why  did  Germany  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the 
Turks? 

(gr)  Why  did  not  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
by  Austria  start  a  general  European  war? 

(h)  Why  did  England  and  Russia  become  friendly? 

(i)    Why  did  not  the  Agadir  incident  bring  about  a  war? 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  SOWING  OF  THE  DRAGON'S  TEETH 

The  growth  of  German  trade. —  Balkan  hatreds. —  The 
wonderful  alliance  against  Turkey. —  The  sympathies  of  the 
big  nations. —  Their  interference  and  its  results. —  A  new 
kingdom. —  The  second  war. —  The  work  of  diplomacy. — 
The.  wrongs  and  grievances  of  Bulgaria. 

Germany's    position    in    Europe    was    not 
favorable  to  her  trade.     Her  ships,   in  order 
to  carry  on  commerce  with  the  peoples  of  the 
Mediterranean,  had  to  go  a  great  deal  farther 
than  those  of  France  or  England.     As  a  result,  Germany 
the  Germans  had  been  looking  toward  Con-  ^^gth 
stantinople  and  southwestern  Asia  as  the  part  East 
of  the  world  with  which  their  commerce  ought 
to  grow.     It  was  Germany's  plan  to  control 
the  Balkan  countries  and  thus  have  a  solid  strip 
of  territory,  including  Germany,  Austria,  the 
Balkan  states,  and  Turkey  through  which  her 
trade  might  pass  to  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and 
India. 

The  feelings  of  the  Balkan  peoples  for  each 
other  has  already  been  explained.     The  Bul- 
garians hated  the  Serbians,  with  whom  they  had 
fought  a  bloody  war  in  1885.     The  Serbians      „ 
despised  the  Bulgarians.     The  Albanians  had  hatreds 

191 


192 


The  Story   of 


The  Map  of  Europe  193 

no  love  for  either  nation,  while  the  Greeks 
looked  down  on  all  the  others.  Montenegro 
and  Serbia  were  friends,  naturally,  since  they 
were  inhabited  by  the  same  kind  of  people  and 
had  once  been  parts  of  the  original  kingdom  of 
Serbia. 

Bulgaria  in   1909   announced  to   the  world 
that  she  would  pay  no  more  tribute  to  Turkey, 
and  after  this  was  to  be  counted  one  of  the 
independent    nations    of    Europe.     The    Bui-  Bulgaria 
garians  had   grown  so  strong  and  the  Turks  ceases  to 
so  weak,  that  Turkey  did  not  dare  go  to  war,  to  Turkey 
so  permitted  the  matter  to  go  unnoticed.     The 
only  thing  on  which  all  the  Balkan  nations  and 
Greece  could  agree  was  their  bitter  hatred  of 
the  Turks,   who  had  oppressed  and  wronged 
them  cruelly  for  the  last  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years. 

Russia,  always  plotting  to  overthrow  Turkey, 
at  last  accomplished  a  wonderful  bit  of  diplo- 
macy. She  encouraged  Bulgaria,  Serbia,  Mon- 
tenegro, and  Greece  to  forget  their  old  time 
dislike  of  each  other,  for  the  time  being,  and 
declare  war  jointly  on  Turkey.  In  order  that  ^he 
there  should  not  be  any  quarreling  over  the  Alliance 
spoils  when  the  war  was  over,  the  four  little 
nations  agreed,  in  a  secret  treaty,  that  when 
they  got  through  with  Turkey,  they  would 
divide  up  the  carcass  as  shown  in  the  opposite 


194 


The   Story   of 


Carving 
the  turkey 


Austria 
and  the 
Serbian 
trade 


Germany 
backs  the 
Turks 


map.  The  head,  including  Constantinople, 
was  to  be  left  for  Russia,  of  course.  Bulgaria 
was  to  take  the  back  and  the  great  part  of  the 
body,  Greece  was  to  annex  the  drumsticks  and 
the  second  joint.  .  The  rest  of  the  body  was  to 
go  to  Serbia  with  the  exception  of  the  very  tail, 
including  the  city  of  Scutari,  which  was  to  be 
given  to  Montenegro.  Serbia  was  at  last  to 
have  a  seacoast  and  a  chance  to  trade  with  other 
nations  than  Austria.  The  Serbs  had  a  grudge 
against  the  Austrians,  for  the  latter,  taking 
advantage  of  the  fact  that  all  Serbian  trade  with 
Europe  had  to  go  through  their  country,  had 
charged  them  exorbitant  prices  for  manufac- 
tured goods  and  paid  them  very  little  for  their 
own  products  in  return.  Bulgaria  was  to  have 
Kavala  (ka  va/la)  as  a  seaport  on  the  Aegean 
and  all  the  coast  of  that  sea  as  far  as  the  Gallipoli 
(gal  i'po  li)  peninsula.  Greece  was  to  have 
the  important  city  of  Salonika  (saloni'ka), 
southern  Macedonia,  and  southern  Albania. 
With  this  secret  agreement  between  them,  the 
four  little  states  went  to  war  with  Turkey. 
In  accordance  with  the  new  friendship  sprung 
up  between  Germany  and  the  Ottomans, 
German  officers  and  generals  were  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople to  drill  the  Turkish  troops.  Can- 
non and  machine  guns  were  sent  them  from 
German  factories,  and  their  rifles  were  fed  with 


The  Map  of  Europe  195 

German    bullets.     The    four    little    countries, 
accordingly,  turned  to  France  and  Russia  for 
assistance.     Their    troops    were    armed    with 
French  cannon  and  machine  guns,   and  their  France  and 
military  advisers  were  French  and  Russians,  ^ssisuhe 
While  the  big  nations  managed  to  keep  out  of  allies 
the  war  themselves,  all  were  strongly  interested 
in  one  side  or  the  other. 

The  result  was  a  complete  surprise  to  Austria 
and  Germany.  To  their  consternation  and 
disgust,  the  four  little  nations  made  short  work 
of  the  Turkish  troops.  In  eight  months, 
Turkey  was  thoroughly  beaten,  and  the  allies 
were  ready  to  put  through  their  program  of 
dividing  up  the  spoils. 

And    now,    once    more,    the    great    powers 
meddled,    and   by   their   interference   laid   the 
foundation  for  future  wars  and  misery.     Austria  interven- 
and  Germany  saw  their  path  to  Constantinople    ™*&t  y  1 
and  the  east  cut  right  in  two.     Their  railroads,  P°wers 
instead  of  passing  through  a  series  of  countries 
under  German  control,   now  were  to  be  cut 
asunder  by  an  arm  of  Slavic  states  under  Rus-  Slavic 
sian   protection,    which   would   certainly   stop 
German  progress  toward  Asia. 

With  the  map  as  it  had  been  before  the  war  of  East  . 
1912,   there  was  one  little  strip  of  territory, 
called  the  Sanjak  of  Novibazar,  between  Serbia 
and  Montenegro,  which  connected  Turkey  with 


196 


The   Story   of 


Italian 

ambition 

concerning 

the 

Adriatic 

Sea 


Austria.  To  be  sure,  this  country  was  inhab- 
ited almost  entirely  by  Serbians,  but  so  long  as 
it  was  under  the  military  control  of  Austria  and 
Turkey,  German  railway  trains  bound  for  the 
east  could  traverse  it.  Now  Serbia  and  Monte- 
negro proposed  to  divide  this  country  up 
between  themselves.  Serbia,  by  gaining  her 
seaport  on  the  Adriatic,  could  send  her  trade 
upon  the  water  to  find  new  markets  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  France. 


DURAZZO 

The  Italians  had  always  wanted  to  control 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  They  longed  for  the  time 
when  the  cities  of  Trieste  and  Pola  should  be 
turned  over  to  them  by  Austria.  The  cities 
of  Durazzo  (du  rat'zo)  and  Avlona  on  the 
Albanian  coast  were  inhabited  by  many  Italians, 
and  Italy  had  always  cherished  the  hope  that 
they  might  belong  to  her.  Therefore,  the 


The  Map  of  Europe  197 

Italians  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  Serbian 
program  of  seizing  this  coast.  At  any  rate, 
as  soon  as  the  four  little  countries  announced 
their  intention  of  dividing  up  Turkey  in  Europe 
among  themselves,  Austria,  Germany,  and 
Italy  raised  a  great  clamor. 

Another  meeting   of  representatives   of   the 
great   powers   was   held,    and   once   more   the 

king-made 

Germans  were  able  to  carry  their  point.  Instead  map 
of  allowing  the  four  little  countries  to  divide  up 
the  conquered  land  between  them,  the  powers 
made  a  fifth  small  country,  the  kingdom  of 
Albania,  and  brought  down  from  Germany  a 
little  prince  to  rule  over  these  wild  mountain- 
eers. Notice  that  the  Albanians  were  not 
consulted.  The  great  powers  simply  took  a 
map,  drew  a  certain  line  on  it  and  said,  "This 
shall  be  the  kingdom  of  Albania,  and  its  king 
shall  be  Prince  William  of  Wied."  Again  we 
have  a  king-made  map  with  the  usual  trail  of  kingdom 
grievances. 

This    arrangement    robbed    Montenegro    of 
Scutari,  robbed  Serbia  of  its  seaport  on  the 
Adriatic,  and  robbed  Greece  of  the  country  west 
of  Janina  (yani'na).     France  and  Russia  did  The  victors 
not  like  this  program,  but  they  did  not  feel 
like  fighting  the  Triple  Alliance  to  prevent  its  spoils 
being  put  into  effect. 

The  three  little  countries,  separated  from  a 


198 


The   Story   of 


a 

£       s      •=• 


•e      .?      £       s       I     3-1 
£^>.£°>.c3>,s>'-=CD^CN< 

"*       J  =3  ^\  3  3*"^*-* 

-      "S^    "S^    -5^    IS" 


The  Map  of  Europe  199 

great  part  of  their  new  territory,  now  turned  to 
Bulgaria,  and,  practically,  said  to  her,  "  Since 
we  have  been  robbed  of  Albania,  we  will  have 
to  divide  up  all  over  again.  You  must  give 
us  part  of  your  plunder  in  order  to  'make 
it  square.' ';  Now  was  the  time  for  the  ancient  A  new 

division 

ill-feeling  between  the  Bulgarians  and  their  demanded 
neighbors  to  show  itself.  In  reply  to  this 
invitation,  Bulgaria  •  said,  in  so  many  words, 
"Not  a  bit  of  it.  Our  armies  bore  the  brunt  of 
the  fight.  It  was  really  we  who  conquered 
Turkey.  Your  little  armies  had  a  very  insig- 
nificant part  in  the  war.  If  you  want  any  more 
land,  we  dare  you  to  come  and  take  it."  "All  Oyercon- 

ndent 

right,  we  will!"  cried  the  three  little  nations,  Bulgaria 
and    they    promptly    declared    war    on    their 
recent  ally. 

This  quarrel,   of  course,   was  exactly  what 
Germany  and  Austria  wanted.    It  accomplished 
their  purpose  of  breaking  up  this  Balkan  alliance 
under    the    protection    of    Russia.     So    with 
Austria    and    Germany    egging    on    Bulgaria, 
and  Russia  and  France   doing  their  best   to  Austria 
induce  Bulgaria  to  be  reasonable  and  surrender  wins; 
some  land  to  Greece  and  Serbia,  the  second  loses 
Balkan  war  began  in  1913  almost  before  the  last 
cannon  discharged  in  the  first  war  had  cooled. 

Again,Europe  was  astonished,  for  the  victorious 
Bulgarians,  who  had  been  mainly  responsible 


200 


The   Story   of 


Again 
Austria 
backs 
the  loser 


Robbing 
the  fallen 
nation 


A  source 
of  future 
trouble 


for  the  defeat  of  the  Turks,  went  down  to  defeat 
before  the  Serbians  and  Greeks  on  the  bloody 
field  of  Koumanova  (koo  ma/no  va) .  To  add  to 
Bulgaria's  troubles,  the  Turks,  taking  ad  vantage 
of  the  discord  among  their  late  opponents, 
suddenly  attacked  the  Bulgarians  in  the  rear 
and  stole  back  the  city  of  Adrianople,  which  had 
cost  the  Bulgarians  so  much  trouble  to  capture. 

In  the  meantime,  Roumania,  which  up  to  this 
point  had  had  no  part  in  any  of  the  fighting, 
saw  all  of  her  neighbors  growing  larger  at  the 
expense  of  Turkey.  The  Roumanian  states- 
men, asking  what  was  to  be  their  share  of  the 
spoils,  and  moved  simply  by  a  greedy  desire  to 
enlarge  their  kingdom,  declared  war  on  Bul- 
garia also. 

Poor  Bulgaria,  fighting  five  nations  at  once, 
had  to  buy  peace  at  the  best  price  she  could 
make.  She  bought  off  Roumania  by  giving 
to  her  a  strip  of  land  in  the  country  called  the 
Dobrudja  (dobrood'ja)  between  the  Danube 
River  and  the  Black  Sea.  She  had  to  agree 
to  a  new  boundary  line  with  Turkey  by  which 
the  Turks  kept  Adrianople.  She  had  to  give 
Kavala  and  the  surrounding  country  to  Greece 
and  the  territory  around  Monastir  (mo  na  stir7) 
to  Serbia,  although  these  districts  were  inhab- 
ited largely  by  her  own  people. 

Bulgaria  had  in  vain  appealed  to  her  ancient 


The  Map  of  Europe  201 

friend  and  protector,  Russia.  The  Russians 
were  disgusted  to  think  that  the  Bulgarians  had 
refused  to  listen  to  them  when  they  urged  them 
to  grant  some  small  pieces  of  land  to  Greece  and 
Serbia  at  the  close  of  the  first  war.  They  felt 
that  the  Bulgarians  had  been  headstrong  and 
richly  deserved  what  they  got.  Therefore, 
Russia  refused  to  interfere  now  and  save  Bul- 
garia from  humiliation.  In  the  end,  Austrian  The  end 
diplomacy  had  accomplished  a  great  deal  of  °f  Russia's 
mischief.  The  Balkan  alliance  under  the  pro-  Alliance 
tection  of  Russia  was  badly  broken  up.  The 
old  hostility  between  Serbia  and  Bulgaria, 
which  had  been  buried  for  the  time  being 
during  the  first  Balkan  war,  now  broke  out  with 
greater  force  than  ever.  Bulgaria  sulked, 
feeling  revengeful  against  all  of  her  neighbors, 
but  especially  angry  at  Russia,  who  had  always 
been  her  friend  before. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  -  Why  did  the  Germans  desire  a  road  to  the  east? 
(6)  What  was  the  one  thing  on  which  the  Balkan  nations 
were  united? 

(c)  What  was  Russia's  purpose  in  helping  to  form  the  Bal- 
kan Alliance? 

(d)  Why  did  the  great  powers  interfere  to  prevent  the  four 
little  countries  from  carrying  out  their  secret  agreement? 

(e)  What  was  the  cause  of  the  second  Balkan  war? 

(/)   Which  powers  were  glad  and  which  were  sorry  to  see  it 
begin? 

(</)  Why  was  Bulgaria  angry  with  all  her  neighbors? 


IS 


(202) 


CHAPTER  XVI 
WHO   PROFITS? 

The  race  for  power  on  the  sea. —  The  "naval  holiday" 
declined. —  The  declining  birth-rate. —  The  growth  of  the 
Socialists. —  The  militarists  of  Germany,  France,  and  Russia. 
—  How  wars  cure  labor  troubles. —  The  forces  behind  the 
war  game. —  Profits  and  press  agents. —  The  bankers. 

Let  us  turn  back  to  the  great  powers  of 
Europe.  We  spoke  of  their  mad  race,  each 
nation  trying  to  build  more  ships  and  bigger 
ships  than  its  neighbors  and  to  outstrip  them 
in  cannon  and  other  munitions  of  war.  The 
German  navy  had  been  growing  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  From  being  the  sixth  largest  navy  in 
the  world,  within  ten  years  it  had  grown  to 

second  place.     But,   as  fast  as  the  Germans  Jhe  race 

for  power 

built  ships,  the  English  built  them  more  rapidly  on  the  sea 
still.  England  built  a  monstrous  battleship 
called  the  Dreadnaught,  which  was  twice  as 
heavy  as  any  other  battleship  afloat.  Germany 
promptly  replied  by  planning  four  ships  of  the 
dreadnaught  class,  and  England  came  back 
with  some  still  larger  vessels  which  are  known 
as  super-dreadnaughts.  Naughts 

At  last,  the  English  first  lord  of  the  navy,  J 
Mr.  Winston  Churchill,  proposed  to  Germany  naughts 

203 


204  The   Story   of 

that  each  country  take  a  " naval  holiday."  In 
other  words,  he  practically  said  to  Germany, 
"If  you  people  will  stop  building  warships  for  a 
yea.r,  we  will  also.  Then  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
we  shall  be  no  worse  off  or  better  off  than  we 
were  at  the  beginning." 


SUBMARINE 

Germany  laughed  at  this  proposal.  To  her, 
it  showed  that  England  could  not  stand  the 
strain  very  much  longer.  "Besides/7  said  the 

hoiidan»Val  Germans>  "it  is  a11  very  wel1  for  England  to  be 
declined  satisfied  with  her  present  navy,  which  is  half 
again  as  large  as  ours.  If  our  navy  were  the 
strongest  in  the  world,  we  too  would  be  glad  to 
have  all  nations  stop  building  warships,"  and 
they  laid  down  the  keels  of  four  new  super- 
dreadnaughts. 

But  other  things  disturbed  the  peace  of  mind 
of  the  German  militarists.  For  a  long  time, 


The  Map  of  Europe  205 

the  population  of  France  had  not  been  increas- 
ing, while  Germany  almost  doubled  her  numbers 
from  1860  to  1900.     Now,  to  their  dismay,  the  The  falUn 
German  birth-rate  began  to  grow  less  and  they  birth-rate 
saw  the  population  of  Russia  growing  larger  by 
20%  every  ten  years.     Again,  they  learned  that 
Russia  was  about  to  build  a  series  of  railroads 
near  the  German  frontier  which  would  enable 
them  to  rush  an  army  to  attack  Germany  at 
very  short  notice.     The  Germans  already  had  «strate  ic,, 
such  railroads  in  their  own  country,  but  they  railroads 
did  not  propose  to  let  their  neighbors  have  this 
advantage  also. 

Again,  France  had  recently  passed  a  law 
forcing  every  young  man  to  put  three  years  in 
military  service  instead  of  two.  This  would 
increase  France's  standing  army  by  50  per  cent. 
The  German  people,  who  up  to  this  time  had 
been  very  docile  and  very  obedient  to  the 
military  rule,  were  showing  signs  of  discontent. 
The  Socialists,  a  party  who  represented  the 
working  people  largely,  and  who  were  strongly 
opposed  to  war,  had  been  growing  very  fast. 
In  the  last  election,  they  had  gained  many 
representatives  in  the  German  congress,  and  The  rise  of 
had  cast  over  4,000,000  votes.  The  only  Socialists 
thing  that  kept  them  from  having  a  majority 
in  the  Reichstag  (the  German  congress)  was 
the  fact  that  in  some  districts,  the  voters  of 


206  The   Story   of 

the  other  parties  combined  against  them.  In 
this  way,  the  military  class  still  held  control 
of  the  German  government,  but  it  was  afraid 
that  it  would  not  be  for  long. 

With  nearly  half  the  able-bodied  men  in  the 
country  spending  their  time  drilling  and  doing 
guard  duty,  the  other  half  of  the  population  had 
to  earn  money  enough  to  support  their  own  f am- 
The  ilies  and  also  the  families  of  the  men  in  the 

workers       army.     As  one  writer  has  put  it,  "  Every  work- 
double  load  ingman  in  Europe  carried  a  soldier  on  his  back 
who  reached  down  and  took  the  bread  out  of 
his  platter." 

The  program  of  Bismarck  was  still  in  the 
minds  of  the  military  leaders  of  Germany. 
The  dream  The  military  class  must  rule  Prussia,  Prussia 
Bismarck  must  rule  Germany,  and  Germany  must  be 
the  greatest  power  in  Europe.  To  their  minds, 
war  between  Germany  and  her  allies  and  the 
rest  of  Europe  must  come.  Being  warriors 
by  trade  and  having  nothing  else  to  do,  they 
saw  that,  if  the  great  war  were  postponed  much 
longer,  the  chances  of  Germany's  winning 
it  would  grow  less  and  less.  France  and 
Russia  were  growing  stronger  and  Germany  was 
unable  to  catch  up  to  England's  navy.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  this  class  made  up  a 
very  tiny  part  of  the  German  nation.  Their 
influence  was  all  out  of  proportion  to  their 


•  The  Map  of  Europe  207 

numbers.     It  must  also  be  noted  that  there  was 
a  similar  class  in  France  (the  Chauvinists  [sho'- 
vin  ists] )   who  were  constantly  clamoring  for 
revenge    on    Germany    for    the   war    of    1870. 
Bismarck's  policy  had  been  to  crush  his  enemies 
one  by  one.     He  never  entered  a  war  until  he 
was  sure  that  Prussia  was  bound  to  win  it.     In 
like  fashion,  the  German  military  chiefs  of  1914 
hoped  to  conquer  France  and  Russia  before  The  plans 
England  was  ready  for  the  conflict.     It  was  the  ^.^ 
old  story  as  told  by  Shakespeare.    "  Our  legions  class 
are  brim  full,  our  cause  is  ripe.     The  enemy 
increaseth  every  day.     We,  at  the  height,  are 
ready  to  decline." 

Russia,  too,  was  having  her  troubles.  After 
the  czar  had  promised  the  nation  a  constitution 
and  had  agreed  to  allow  a  duma  or  parliament 
to  be  called  together,  the  military  class,  who 
were  trying  to  keep  the  common  people  under  ^;sian 
control  and  in  ignorance  as  much  as  possible  duma 
had  been  able  to  prevent  the  duma  from  obtain- 
ing any  power  whatsoever.  It  had  much  less 
freedom  than  the  German  Reichstag.  It  was 
permitted  to  meet  and  to  talk,  but  not  to  pass 
laws.  If  any  member  spoke  his  mind  freely,  he 
was  sent  to  Siberia  for  life.  There  were  mur- 
murs and  threats.  There  were  labor  troubles  Murmurs 

of 
and  strikes.     The  people  of  Russia,  especially  discontent 

those  living  in  cities,  were  learning  how  little 


208 


The   Story   of 


An  old- 
time  trick 
of  kings 


The 

profitable 
business 
of  preparing 
for  war 


freedom  they  had,  compared  with  citizens  of 
other  countries,  and  the  time  seemed  ripe  for  a 
revolution. 

It  has  always  been  the  policy  of  kings  to  take 
the  minds  of  their  people  off  their  own  wrongs 
by  giving  them  some  foreign  war  to  think  about. 
Many  a  king  who  was  in  danger  of  being  driven 
from  his  country  has  been  able,  by  declaring 
war  on  some  other  nation,  to  distract  the  minds 
of  his  subjects  and  to  save  his  throne,  through 
the  pride  of  his  people  in  the  victories  of  their 
armies.  So  the  czar  probably  was  not  sorry 
to  see  war  clouds  threatening.  He  hoped  that 
in  their  anger  against  Germany,  the  Russians 
would  forget  their  grievances  against  their  own 
government. 

There  were  two  other  forces  at  work  to  pro- 
mote war.  With  so  many  of  the  men  of  Europe 
drilling  every  day,  the  manufacturing  of  wea- 
pons and  equipment  of  armies  grew  to  be  one  of 
the  great  industries  of  the  world.  Many  of 
Europe's  wealthiest  citizens  had  their  money 
invested  in  gun-factories  and  powder  mills. 
It  was  to  the  direct  advantage  of  these  people 
to  keep  up  the  preparation  for  war.  They  kept 
inventing  newer  and  stronger  guns,  so  that  the 
weapons  which  they  had  sold  the  governments 
one  year  would  be  out  of  date  the  next,  and 
ready  to  be  thrown  on  the  scrap  heap.  In  this 


The  Map  of  Europe  209 

way,  their  factories  were  kept  working  day  and 
night,  and  their  profits  were  enormous.  This 
money,  of  course,  came  out  of  the  taxes  of  the 
people. 

The  newspapers,  too,  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  keeping  up  the  war  talk.     It  was  proved  in 
the  German  Reichstag  in  1913  that  the  great  The 
gun-makers  of  Europe  had  a  force  of  hired  news-  gun-makers 
paper  writers  who  were  paid  to  keep  up  threats  hired  press 
of  war.     The  gun-makers  paid  certain  news- 
papers in  Paris  large  sums  to  print  articles  to 
make  the  French  people  think  that  the  Germans 
were   just    on   the   point    of   attacking   them. 
These  same  gun-makers  paid  other  newspapers 
in  Berlin  money  to  persuade  the  German  people 
that  the  French,  in  their  anxiety  for  revenge 
for  the  war  of  1870,  were  just  on  the  point  of 
attacking  them.     Net  result:   As  soon  as  France  Jf 
ordered  more  guns,  Germany  ordered  still  more;  scares 
and  thus  the  game  went  on,  with  taxes  piling 
heavier  and  heavier  on  the  common  people  and  a 
great   part   of  the  workers   of  Europe   either 
drilling  for  war  or  working  at  the  destructive 
trade  of  manufacturing  implements  for  killing. 

Another  class  of  people  also  were  interested 
in  promoting  wars.  These  were  the  great 
bankers  of  Europe.  No  nation  in  war  can  pay 
the  expenses  of  the  conflict  by  its  own  revenue. 
It  is  obliged  to  mortgage  its  future  earnings  and 


210 


The   Story   of 


money 


The 
Empire 
of  Finance 


put  upon  its  people  a  debt  which  it  will  take 
hundreds  °f  years  to  wipe  out.  The  national 
debts  of  countries  like  France  and  England, 
which  have  fought  many  wars,  are  simply 
staggering.  In  some  nations,  the  taxes  amount 
to  25  per  cent,  or  one-fourth  of  a  man's  income. 
When  a  war  breaks  out,  the  nations  have  to 
rush  to  the  great  bankers  and  seek  their  help. 
In  prosperous  times,  the  people  have  been 
depositing  their  money  in  the  banks,  until 
the  bankers  have  a  great  surplus  of  gold  on 
hand  and  cannot  find  a  chance  to  invest  it  to 
make  high  rates  of  interest.  Accordingly, 
they  welcome  a  war,  for  it  gives  them  a  chance 
to  lend  back  to  the  people  their  own  money  and 
charge  them  high  rates  of  interest  which  will 
continue  to  be  paid  for  years  and  years  to 
come.  These  bankers,  largely  through  the 
house  of  Rothschild,  which  has  branch  banks  in 
all  of  the  leading  European  cities,  are  connected, 
and  act  together.  One  of  the  chief  reasons  why 
France  and  Germany  did  not  go  to  war  in  1911 
was  that  the  bankers  transferred  a  great  store 
of  gold  from  Berlin  to  Paris.  They  were  not 
ready  to  have  war  break  out  at  that  time  and 
they  calmly  told  the  German  government  that 
they  would  not  lend  the  money. 

On  the  other  hand  war  brings  no  gain  to  the 
common  people.     In  1899,  Great  Britain  de- 


The  Map  of  Europe  211 

clared  war  on  two  little  Dutch  republics  in 
South  Africa.  It  cost  England  a  billion  dollars 
and  the  lives  of  a  hundred  thousand  men,  and 
when  the  war  was  over,  very  little  land  had 
actually  changed  owners.  The  Dutch  people 
were  annexed  to  British  South  Africa,  it  is  true, 
but  they  remained  in  possession  of  their  own 
land  and  today  are  enjoying  almost  complete 
self-government . 

No  citizen  of  Berlin  is  any  happier  or  better 

Wno 

off  because  the  people  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  profits? 
are  compelled  to  teach  German  in  their  schools 
instead  of  French.  Even  the  billion  dollars 
indemnity  that  France .  paid  after  the  war  of 
1870  was  not  spent  for  the  benefit  of  the  German 
people.  It  was  hoarded  in  a  great  war  chest 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  next  conflict. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  did  Germany  decline  to  take  a  ''naval  holiday"? 
(h)  What  is  meant  by  "strategic  railroads?" 

(c)  Why  were  the  military  leaders  alarmed  at  the  growth 
of  the  Socialist  Party? 

(d)  Why  could  a  few  men  in  each  country  control  it? 

(e)  What  was  the  situation  in  Russia  regarding  popular 
government? 

(/)    Why  are  kings  sometimes  glad  to  have  wars  break  out? 

(g)  Was  the  influence  of  European  newspapers  on  the  side 
of  peace  or  war?  Why? 

(h)  Were  the  bankers  on  the  side  of  peace  or  war?     Why? 

(i)  'How  does  the  individual  citizen  prosper  if  his  govern- 
ment wins  a  war? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   SPARK   THAT  EXPLODED 
THE   MAGAZINE 

The  year  1914. —  England's  troubles. —  Plots  for  a  "Greater 
Serbia." — The  hated  archduke. —  The  shot  whose  echoes 
shook  the  whole  world. —  Austria's  extreme  demands.— 
Russia  threatens. —  Frantic  attempts  to  prevent  war. — • 
Mobilizing  on  both  sides. —  Germany's  tiger-like  spring. — 
The  forts  of  the  Vosges  Mountains. —  The  other  path  to 
Paris. —  The  neutrality  of  Belgium. —  Belgium  defends 
herself. 

The  year  1914  found  England  involved  in 
England's     serious  difficulties.     Her  parliament  had  voted 

many 

troubles  to  give  home  rule  to  Ireland.  There  was  to  be 
an  Irish  parliament,  which  would  govern 
Ireland  as  the  Irish  wanted  it  governed.  Ulster, 
a  province  in  the  northeast  of  Ireland,  however, 
was  very  unhappy  over  this  arrangement.  Its 
people  were  largely  of  English  and  Scotch 
descent,  and  they  were  Protestants,  while  the 
other  inhabitants  of  Ireland  were  Celts  and 
Catholics.  The  people  of  this  province  were  so 
bitter  against  home  rule  that  they  actually 
imported  rifles  and  drilled  regiments,  saying 
that  they  would  start  a'  civil  war  if  England 
compelled  them  to  be  governed  by  an  Irish 
parliament. 

212 


The  Map  of  Europe  213 

There  were  labor  troubles  and  strikes,  also, 
in  England,  and  threatened  revolutions  in 
India,  where  the  English  government  was  none 
too  popular.  Altogether,  it  looked  as  though 
England  had  so  many  troubles  of  her  own  that 
she  would  never  dare  to  enter  a  general  Euro- 
pean war. 

Meanwhile,  the  Serbians,  unhappy  over  the 
loss   of   Bosnia   and   Herzegovina   to   Austria, 
were   busily  stirring  up   the   people   of   these  Plotting 
provinces  to  revolt.     The  military  leaders  who  Greater 
really  ruled  Austria,  were  in  favor  of  crushing  SerDia 
these  attempted  uprisings  with  an  iron  hand. 

One  of  the  leaders  of  this  party,  a  man  who 
was  greatly  hated  by  the  Serbians,  was  the 
Archduke  Franz  Ferdinand,  nephew  of  the 
emperor  and  heir  to  the  throne.  He  finally  ? 
announced  that  he  was  going  in  person  to  throne 
Sarajevo  (sa  ra  ye'vo)  in  Bosnia  to  look  into 
the  situation  himself.  The  people  of  the  city 
warned  him  not  to  come,  saying  that  his  life 
would  be  in  danger,  as  he  was  so  hated.  Being 
a  headstrong  man  of  violent  temper,  he  refused 
to  listen  to  this  advice,  but  insisted  on  going. 
His  devoted  wife,  after  doing  her  best  to  dis- 
suade him,  finally  refused  to  let  him  go  without 
her. 

When  it  was  known  that  he  was  really  coming, 
the  Serbian  revolutionists  laid  their  plans. 


214  The   Story   of 

They  found  out  just  where  his  carriage  was 
to  pass,  and  at  almost  every  street  corner, 
.  they  had  some  assassin  with  bomb  or  pistol, 

laid  plot  One  bomb  was  thrown  at  him,  but  it  exploded 
too  soon,  and  he  escaped.  Bursting  with  indig- 
nation, he  was  threatening  the  mayor  for  his 
lax  policing,  when  a  second  assassin,  a  nineteen 
year  old  boy,  stepped  up  with  a  pistol  and  shot 
to  death  the  archduke  and  his  wife. 

Many  people  have  referred  to  this  incident  as 
the  cause  of  the  great  European  war.  As  you 
have  been  shown,  however,  this  was  simply  the 
spark  that  exploded  the  magazine.  With  the 
whole  situation  as  highly  charged  as  it  was,  any 
other  little  spark  would  have  been  enough  to  set 
the  war  a-going. 

The  Austrian  government  sent  word  to  Serbia 

Austrian 

indignation  that   the   crime   had   been   traced   to   Serbian 
plotters,  some  of  them  in  the  employ  of  the 
government.     It  demanded  that  Serbia  apol- 
ogize; also  that  she  hunt  out  and  punish  the 
plotters  at  once.     And  because  Austria  did  not 
Austria's      trust  the  Serbians  to  hold  an  honest  investi- 
extraordi-     gation,  she  demanded  that  her  officers  should 

inary 

demands      sit  in  the  Serbian  courts  as  judges. 

Imagine  a  Japanese  killed  in  San  Francisco, 
and  think  what  the  United  States  would  say  if 
the  Tokio  government  insisted  that  a  Japanese 
judge  be  sent  to  California  to  try  the  case 


The  Map  of  Europe  215 

because  Japan  could  not  trust  America  to  give 
her  justice!  The  Serbians,  of  course,  were  in  no 
position  to  fight  a  great  power  like  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  yet,  weakened  as  they  were,  they 
could  not  submit  to  such  a  demand  as  this. 
They  agreed  to  all  the  Austrian  demands  except 
the  one  concerning  the  Austrian  judges  in 
Serbian  courts.  They  appealed  to  the  other 
powers  to  see  that  justice  was  done  them. 

Russia  growled  ominously  at  Austria,  where- 
upon Germany  sent  a  sharp  warning  to  Russia  RUSSia 

that   this   was   none   of  her   affair,    and   that  as  Serbia's 

.  bls 

Austria  and  Serbia  must  be  left  to  fight  it  out.  brother 

In  the  meantime,  Serbia  offered  to  lay  the  mat- 
ter before  the  court  of  arbitration  at  the  Hague. 
(In  1899,  at  the  invitation  of  the  czar  of  Russia, 
representatives    of    all    the    great    powers    of 
Europe  met  at  the  Hague  to  found  a  lasting  The 
court  which   should   decide   disputes   between  tribunal 
nations  fairly,  and  try  to  do  away  with  wars, 
to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible.     The  court  has 
several    times    been    successful    in    averting 
trouble.     See  frontispiece.) 

Great  Britain  proposed  that  the  dispute 
between  Austria  and  Serbia  should  be  judged  by 
a  court  composed  of  representatives  of  France, 
England,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Austria's  reply 
to  the  proposals  of  England  and  Serbia  was  a 
notice  to  the  latter  country  that  she  had  just 


216 


The   Story   of 


Striving 
to  avert 
war 


The  slow- 
moving 
Russians 


Germany's 

wonderful 

machinery 


forty-eight  hours  in  which  to  give  in  com- 
pletely to  the  Austrian  demands.  In  the  mean- 
time, Mr.  Sazanoff,  the  Russian  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  was  vainly  pleading  with  England 
to  declare  what  she  would  do  in  case  the  Triple 
Alliance  started  a  war  with  France  and  Russia. 
Kings  and  ministers  telegraphed  frantically, 
trying  to  prevent  the  threatened  conflict. 
The  story  was  sent  out  by  Germany  that  Russia 
was  gathering  her  troops,  mobilizing  them,  as 
it  is  called.  As  Russia  has  so  much  more 
territory  to  draw  from  than  any  other  country, 
and  as  her  railroads  are  not  many  and  are  poorly 
served,  it  was  figured  that  it  would  be  six  weeks 
before  the  Russian  army  would  be  ready  to 
fight  anybody.  Germany,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  her  wonderful  system  of  government- 
owned  railroads,  and  the  machine-like  organ- 
ization of  her  army,  could  launch  her  forces 
across  the  frontier  at  two  days'  notice.  As  soon 
as  the  Germans  began  to  hear  that  the  Russians 
were  mobilizing  their  troops  against  Austria, 
Germany  set  in  motion  the  rapid  machinery  for 
gathering  her  own  army.  She  sent  a  sharp 
message  to  Russia,  warning  the  latter  that  she 
must  instantly  stop  mobilizing  or  Germany 
would  declare  war.  Next  the  Germans  asked 
France  what  she  intended  to  do  in  case  Germany 
and  Austria  declared  war  on  Russia.  France 


The  Map  of  Europe  217 

replied  that  she  would  act  in  accordance  with 
what  seemed  to  be  her  best  interests.     This 
answer  did  not  seem  very  reassuring,  and  with-  The  g  rin 
out  any  declaration  of  war,  the  German  army  of  a  tiger 
rushed  for  the  French  frontier. 

Now  ever  since  the  war  of  1870,  France  had 
been  building  a  line  of  great  forts  across  the 
narrow  stretch  of  ground  where  her  territory 
approached  that  of  Germany.  Belfort,  Toul,  ^fe^nce~ 
Epinal,  Verdun,  Longwy,  they  ranged  through  man-made 
the  mountains  northeast  of  France  as  guardians  natural 
of  their  country  against  another  German  attack. 
To  rush  an  army  into  France  over  this  rough 
country  and  between  these  great  fortresses  was 
impossible.  Modern  armies  carry  great  guns 
with  them  which  cannot  climb  steep  grades. 
Therefore,  if  Germany  wanted  to  strike  a  quick, 
smashing  blow  at  France  and  get  her  armies 
back  six  weeks  later  to  meet  the  slow-moving 
Russians,  it  was  plain  that  she  must  seek  some 
other  approach  than  that  through  the  Vosges 
Mountains. 

From   Aix-La-Chapelle   near   the   Rhine   in 
Germany,  through  the  northern  and  western  ^j^^161 
part  of  Belgium,  there  stretches  a  flat  plain,  France 
with  level  roads,  easy  to  cross.     (See  map,  p. 
220.)     Now,   years  before,  Belgium  had  been 
promised    by   France,    Prussia,    and    England 
that  no  one  of  them  would  disturb  its  neutrality. 


(218) 


The  Map  of  Europe  219 

In  other  words  it  was  pledged  that  in  case 
of  a  war,  no  armed  force  of  any  of  these  three 
nations  should  enter  Belgian  territory,  nor 
should  Belgium  be  involved  in  any  trouble 
arising  among  them.  In  case  any  one  of  the 
nations  named  or  in  fact  any  other  hostile  force,  bargain 
invaded  Belgium,  the  signers  of  the  treaty  were 
bound  to  rush  to  Belgium's  aid.  Belgium, 
in  return,  had  agreed  to  resist  with  her  small  Belgium 
army  any  troops  which  might  invade  her 
country. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  nation  had 
signed  this  treaty,  the  Germans  started  their 
rush  toward  France,  not  through  the  line  of  forts 
in  the  mountains,  but  across  the  gently  rolling 
plain  to  the  north.  They  first  asked  permission 
of  the  Belgians  to  pass  through  their  country. 
On  being  refused,  they  entered  Belgian  territory 
just  east  of  Liege  (li  ezh').  The  Belgians  B  .  , 
telegraphed  their  protest  to  Berlin.  The  Ger-  protest 
mans  replied  that  they  were  sorry  but  it  was 
necessary  for  them  to  invade  Belgium  in  order 
to  attack  France.  They  agreed  to  do  no  dam- 
age and  to  pay  the  Belgians  for  any  supplies 
or  food  which  their  army  might  seize.  The 
Belgians  replied  that  by  their  treaty  with 
France,  England,  and  Germany  they  were 
bound  on  their  honor  to  resist  just  such  an 
invasion  as  this.  They  asked  the  Germans 


220 


The   Story   of 


_11I."J1I  The    Two    Routes    to   Paris 
•  French    Forts 


V  s^V/ 

PARIS  (Si^^  \  |>4. 

*"" ^f?&* 

fWM 

FRANCE 


AUSTRIA 

^h^^  / 

-\  Nv      ^' 


MAP     SHOWING     THE     TWO     ROUTES     FROM     GERMANY 
TO  PARIS 


Force 
rules 


how  Germany  would  regard  them  if  they  were  to 
permit  a  French  army  to  cross  Belgian  terri- 
tory to  take  Germany  by  surprise.  The 
Germans  again  said  that  they  were  sorry,  but 
that  if  Belgium  refused  permission  to  their 
army  to  cross,  the  army  would  go  through 
without  permission.  It  was  a  dreadful  decision 
that  Belgium  had  to  make,  but  she  did  not 
hesitate.  She  sent  orders  to  her  armies  to 
resist  by  all  means  the  passage  of  the  German 
troops.  The  great  war  had  begun. 


The  Map  of  Europe  221 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  were  the  people  of  Ulster  unhappy  at  the  thought 
of  home  rule  for  Ireland? 

(6)  What  were  the  hopes  of  the  Serbians  regarding  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina? 

(c)  Why  did  Russia  interfere  between  Austria  and  Serbia? 

(d)  Why  did  Russia  mobilize  her  troops? 

(e)  What  was  the  cause  of  the  German  attack  upon  France? 
(/)   Why    did    the    Germans    choose    the    road    through 

Belgium? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


The 

"line-up" 
of  nations 


The  power 
of  the 
workers 
in  Italy 


WHY  ENGLAND   CAME,  IN 

The  question  of  Italy  and  England. —  Italy's  position. — 
The  war  with  Turkey. —  Italy  declines  to  join  her  allies. — 
England  is  aware  of  the  German  plans. —  The  treaty  with 
Belgium. —  Germany's  rage  at  England's  declaration  of  war. — 
The  result  of  militarism  vs.  navalism. —  The  working  classes 
protest,  feebly. —  Race  hatred  kept  alive  by  descendants  of 
the  feudal  lords. 

France,  Belgium,  Russia,  and  Serbia  were 
combined  against  Austria  and  Germany.  Little 
Montenegro  also  rushed  to  the  help  of  her  neigh- 
bor and  kinsman,  Serbia.  The  question  was, 
what  would  Italy  and  England  do.  Italy,  like 
Russia  and  Germany,  had  been  having  trouble 
in  holding  down  her  people.  A  revolution  had 
been  threatened  which  would  overthrow  the 
king  and  set  up  a  republic.  The  Socialist 
Party,  representing  the  working  class,  had 
been  growing  very  strong,  and  one  of  their 
greatest  principles  was  that  all  war  is  wrong. 
They  felt  that  the  Triple  Alliance  made  by  the 
Italian  statesmen  had  never  bound  the  Italian 
people.  Throughout  the  entire  peninsula,  the 
Austrians  were  hated. 

,  You  will  remember  that  France  had  aroused 

the  Italians'  anger  in   1881   by  seizing  Tunis. 

222 


The  Map  of  Europe  223 

Italy  had  hoped  to  snap  up  this  province  for 
herself,  for  the  Italian  peninsula  was  crowded 
with  people,  and  as  the  population  increased,  it 
was  thought  necessary  that  colonies  be  estab- 
lished to  which  the  people  could  migrate  to  have 
more  room.  Finally  in  1911,  in  order  to  divert 
the  minds  of  the  people  from  revolutionary 
thoughts,  the  government  organized  an  expedi- 
tion to  swoop  down  on  Tripoli,  which,  like 
Egypt,  was  supposed  to  belong  to  Turkey. 

This  meant  war  with  the  government  at 
Constantinople,  and  Germany  and  Austria 
were  very  angry  at  Italy,  their  ally,  for  attack- 
ing  Turkey,  with  which  the  Austrians  and  Ger-  Italian  war 
mans  were  trying  to  establish  a  firm  friendship. 
However,  "  self-preservation  is  the  first  law  of 
nature,"  and  the  Italian  king  and  nobles  valued 
their  leadership  in  the  nation  much  more  than 
they  dreaded  the  dislike  of  Germany  and 
Austria. 

The  Germans  had  counted  on  Italy  to  join  in 
the  attack  on  Russia  and  France,  but  the  Italian 
statesmen  knew  the  feelings  of  their  people  too 
well  to  attempt  this.  Of  late  years,  there  had 
been  growing  up  a  friendship  between  the  people  The 
of  Italy  and  those  of  France,  and  the  Italian  friendship 


generals  knew  that  it  would  be  a  difficult  task 

Italy  and 

to  induce  their  men  to  fire  upon  their  kinsmen  France 
from  across  the  Alps.     Therefore,  when  Austria 


224  The   Story   of 

and  Germany  demanded  their  support  in  the 
war,  they  replied  by  pointing  out  that  the  terms 
of  the  Triple  Alliance  bound  Italy  to  go  to  their 
help  only  if  they  were  attacked.  "In  this  case," 
said  the  Italians,  "you  are  the  attacking  party. 
The  treaty  does  not  bind  us  to  support  you  in 
any  war  of  conquest..  What  is  more,  we  were 

Germany  not  consulted  before  Austria  sent  to  Serbia  her 
impossible  demands.  Expect  no  help  from  us." 
Now  the  great  question  arose  as  to  England. 
The  English  statesmen  were  not  blind  to ,  the 
German  plan.  They  saw  that  Germany  in- 
tended to  crush  France  first,  capturing  Paris 
and  dealing  the  French  army  such  an  over- 
whelming blow  that  it  would  take  it  a  long  time 
to  recover.  Then  the  German  armies  were  to  be 

planned        rushed  back  over  their  marvelous  system  of  gov- 

progra:         ernment-owned  railroads  to  meet  the  on-coming 

German       tjde  of  Russians. 

military 

chiefs  The  Germans  knew  that  they  were  well  pro- 

vided with  ammunition  and  all  war  supplies. 
They  knew  that  they  had  invented  some  won- 
derful guns  which  were  large  enough  to  batter 
down  the  strongest  forts  in  the  world.  They 
did  not  have  very  much  respect  for  the  ability 
of  the  Russian  generals.  They  had  watched 
them  bungle  badly  in  the  Japanese  war,  ten 
years  before.  If  once  France  were  brought 
to  her  knees,  they  did  not  fear  Russia.  Then 


The  Map  of  Europe  225 

after  France  and  Russia  had  been  beaten, 
there  would  be  plenty  of  time,  later  on,  to  settle 
with  Great  Britain. 

The  English  statesmen,  as  we  have  said, 
were  aware  of  this  plan.  They  saw  that  if 
they  were  to  fight  Germany,  this  was  the  ideal 
time.  However,  Great  Britain,  having  a  gov- 
ernment which  is  more  in  the  hands  of  the 
people  than  even  that  of  republican  France,  No 
did  not  have  the  system  of  forcing  her  young  mffitaiy 

3   compulsion 

men  to  do  military  service.  Her  little  army  in  England 
was  made  up  entirely  of  men  who  enlisted  in 
it  because  they  wished  to,  and  because  they 
received  fair  pay.  If  England  were  to  enter  a 
great  war  with  Germany,  there  must  be  some 
very  good  reason  for  her  doing  so.  Otherwise, 
her  people,  who  really  did  not  hate  the  Germans, 
would  never  enlist  to  fight  against  them.  The 
question  was,  would  anything  happen  to  make 
the  English  people  feel  that  they  were  justified 
in  entering  the  war  on  the  side  of  France  and 
Russia. 

You  will  remember  that  England,  France, 
and  Prussia  had  promised  each  other  to  protect 
Belgium  from  war.  Even  in  the  war  of  1870, 
France  and  Prussia  had  carefully  avoided 
bringing  their  troops  upon  Belgian  soil.  Now, 
however,  with  the  German  army  invading 
Belgium,  the  English  statesmen  had  to  decide 


226 


The   Story   of 


England 
decides 


Where  the 
German 
leaders 
miscal- 
culated 


their  course.  As  heads  of  one  of  the  nations  to 
guarantee  Belgium's  freedom,  they  called  on 
Germany  to  explain  this  unprovoked  invasion. 
The  Germans  made  no  answer.  They  were 
busily  attacking  the  city  of  Liege.  Great 
Britain  gave  Germany  twenty-four  hours  in 
which  to  withdraw  her  troops  from  Belgium. 
At  the  end  of  this  time,  with  Germany  paying 
no  attention  still,  England  solemnly  declared 
war  and  took  her  stand  alongside  of  Russia 
and  France. 

The  Germans  were  furious.  They  had  no  bit- 
ter feeling  against  the  French.  They  realized 
that  France  was  obliged,  by  the  terms  of  her 
alliance,  to  stand  by  Russia,  but  they  had  con- 
fidently counted  on  keeping  England  out  of  the 
war.  In  fact,  the  German  ambassador  to 
England  had  assured  the  German  emperor  that 
England  had  so  many  troubles,  with  her  upris- 
ing in  Ireland  and  threatened  rebellions  in  India 
and  South  Africa  that  she  would  never  dare  fight 
at  this  time.  It  seemed  to  the  Germans  that 
the  English  had  deliberately  misled  them, 
drawing  them  into  a  trap  and  then  attacking 
them  when  they  were  already  engaged  in  a  life 
and  death  struggle  with  two  other  strong 
antagonists.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  a  case 
of  "pot  and  kettle,"- -  the  pot  was  calling  the 
kettle  black.  England  was  doing  to  Germany 


The  Map  of  Europe  227 

exactly  what  Germany  would  have  liked  to  do 
to  England  if  the  circumstances  had  been  the 
other  way. 

England  and  Germany  were  two  proud, 
headstrong  nations,  each  thinking  herself  the 
greatest  power  in  the  world.  With  this  un- 
Christian  sentiment  in  the  hearts  of  their  with  pride 
leaders,  they  were  bound  to  clash  sooner  or 
later,  as  long  as  the  military  classes  in  each 
country  held  control  of  the  government. 

In  England,  there  was  some  protest  against 
the  war  on  the  part  of  the  Labor  Party.  They 
felt  that  both  they  and  the  German  working- 
men  had  everything  to  lose  and  nothing  to  gain  :J 
by  fighting,  and  that  if  the  laboring  men  in  both  workers 
countries  refused  to  fight  there  would  be  no 
war.  Two  of  the  representatives  of  the  Labor 
Party  in  parliament,  Mr.  Hardie  and  Mr. 
MacDonald,  opposed  the  military  program. 
They  were  promptly  denounced  as  "  traitors" 
by  the  war-chiefs,  and  the  majority  of  average 
citizens  took  up  the  same  cry,  which  was  echoed 
in  the  newspapers.  One  sincere  lover  of  peace 
and  of  his  fellow  men,  Lord  Morley,  had  the 
courage  to  resign  his  place  in  the  English 
cabinet  rather  than  support  war.  John  Burns, 
the  Labor  leader,  did  the  same.  These  were 
rare  exceptions.  The  great  mass  of  the  British 
people  believed,  as  their  newspapers  told  them, 


228 


The   Story   of 


What  the 
Germans 
believe 


The 

common 
people  not 
to  blame 


that  war  was  necessary  and  that  the  life  of  the 
British  Empire  was  at  stake. 

Could  the  common  people  in  the  two  countries 
have  gotten  together  and  come  to  understand 
each  other,  the  situation  might  have  been 
different;  But  in  Germany,  the  protests  against 
war  were  still  more  feeble.  The  newspapers, 
with  few  exceptions,  as  was  previously  pointed 
out,  were  under  the  control  of  the  military 
leaders  and  the  manufacturers  of  war  materials. 
These  papers  persuaded  the  German  people 
that  England,  through  her  jealousy  of  Ger- 
many's great  growth -in  trade,  had  egged  on 
Russia,  France,  and  Serbia  to  attack  Germany 
and  Austria,  and  then  had  declared  war  herself 
on  a  flimsy  pretext.  The  entire  German  nation 
believes  this.  They  think,  as  their  war  chiefs 
tell  them,  that  the  war  was  thrust  upon  Ger- 
many by  her  enemies,  just  as  the  English 
people  believe  that  Germany  forced  the  war 
upon  them. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  people  in  each  country 
who  really  would  profit  by  the  war,  and  who 
were  not  sorry  to  see  it  start,  comprised  a  mere 
handful  in  comparison  to  the  people  who  had 
nothing  to  gain  from  the  war.  The  average 
German  and  the  average  Frenchman  could  meet, 
and,  after  talking  to  each  other  as  best  they 
could,  owing  to  their  differences  in  language, 


The  Map  of  Europe  229 

could  part  company,  each  agreeing  that  the 
other  was  a  very  good  fellow.  The  Italian 
and  the  Austrian  can  meet  in  America  and  find 
things  to  admire  and  respect  in  each  other's 
qualities.  Even  the  Serb  and  the  Bulgar, 
transplanted  to  this  country,  as  they  learn 
to  know  each  other,  have  become  warm  friends. 
The  spirit  of  race  hatred  has  been  kept  alive  in 
the  first  place  by  ignorance.  The  common 
people  of  Russia  do  not  know  the  people  of  the  Race 
same  class  in  Germany,  but  each  believes  the  hatred  kept 

alive  by 

other  to  be  brutal  and  unlovely.     It  was  the  ignorance 
same  thing  in  the  United  States  before  the  Civil 
War.     The  Yankee  and  the  Southerner  did  not 
know  each  other,  but  each  believed  the  other 
capable  of  the  meanest  acts,   and  not  worth 
knowing.     Since  the  war,  as  northern  people  Yajk66 
have  gone  to  live  among  the  southerners  and  Southerner 
vice  versa,  each  section  has  come  to  appreciate 
and    admire    the    virtues    of    the    other.     As 
Senator    Lamar.  of    Mississippi    said,    in    the 
United  States  Senate,  at  the  time  of  the  death 
of    Charles    Sumner,    the    great    opponent    of 
slavery,  "My  countrymen,  learn  to  know  one 
another,  and  you  will  love  one  another." 

So  again  we  find  military  leaders  and  descend- 
ants of  the  old  feudal  nobles  able  to  set  whole 
nations  to  hating  each  other  whose  people 
should  have  been  friends. 


230  The   Story   of 


Questions  for  Review 

(a)  Why  did  Italy  make  war  on  Turkey  in  1911? 
(&)  Why  did  not  Italy  join  in  the  attack  on  France? 

(c)  What  was  Germany's  plan? 

(d)  How  is  the  English  army  different  from  those  of  the 
continental  nations? 

(e)  What    reason    had    England    for    declaring    war    on 
Germany? 

(/)  Had  the  Germans  expected  England  to  attack  them? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

(g)  Was  the  war  to  the  interest  of  the  common  people  in  any 
of  the  countries? 

(h)  Why  could  diplomats  and  kings  set  men  to  fighting 
each  other? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
DIPLOMACY  AND  KINGLY  AMBITION 

Turkey  throws  in  her  lot  with  the  central  empires. —  The 
demands  of  Italy. —  She  joins  the  Triple  Entente. —  The 
retreat  of  the  Russians. —  The  Balkans  again. —  Bulgaria's 
bargaining. —  German  princes  on  Balkan  thrones, —  The 
central  empires  bid  the  highest  for  Bulgarian  support. —  The 
attitude  of  Greece. —  Roumania's  hopes. 

To  return  to  the  great  war.     The  diplomats 
of  both  sides  made  all  haste  to  put  pressure  upon  The  effort 
the  governments  of  the  countries  which  were  not  to  involve 

other 

engaged  in  the  struggle,  in  order  to  win  them  nations 
over.     Germany  and  Austria  worked  hard  with 
Italy,  with  Turkey,  and  with  Bulgaria.     The 
Turks  were  the  first  to  plunge  in.     The  party 
headed  by  Enver  Bey  (the  young  minister  of 
war)   saw  that  a  victory  for  Russia  and  her 
allies  meant  the  final  expulsion  of  the  Turks 
from  Europe.     Only  in  the  victory  of  Germany 
and  Austria  did  this  faction  see  any  hope  for 
Turkey.     It  was   the  latter  part   of   October 
(1914)    when   Turkish   warships,   without   any  TuT^e 
provocation,  sailed  into  some  Russian  ports  on  plunges  in 
the  Black  Sea  and  blazed  away  with  their  big 
guns. 

Some  of  the  older  Turkish  statesmen  were 
terrified,  and  did  their  best  to  get  the  govern- 
231 


232  The   Story   of 

ment  at  Constantinople  to  disclaim  all  respon- 
sibility for  this  act  of  their  naval  commanders. 
The  "  Young  Turks/'  however,  were  all  for  war 
on  the  side  of  Germany.  What  is  more, 
Russia,  always  anxious  for  an  excuse  to  seize 
Constantinople,  would  not  allow  the  Turks 
to  apologize  for  their  act  and  keep  out  of  trouble. 
She  declared  war  on  Turkey,  and  was  quickly 
followed  by  France  and  England. 

Both  sides  now  set  to  work  on  Italy.     It  was 
plain  that  all  the  sympathies  of  the  Italian 

.,  people  were  with  France  and  England.     The  six 

(janbalai 

in  France  grandsons  of  Garibaldi  formed  an  Italian  regi- 
ment and  volunteered  for  fighting  on  the  French 
lines.  Two  of  them  were  killed,  and  at  their 
funerals  in  Rome,  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  city  turned  out  and  showed  plainly  that 
they  too  would  like  to  be  fighting  on  the  side 
of  France. 

You  will  remember  that  Italy  wanted  very 

much  to  gain  the  provinces  of  Trentino  and 

Istria,  with  the  cities  of  Trent,  Trieste  (tri  es'te), 

Pola  (po'la),  and  Fiume  (fe  u'me),  all  inhabited 

by   Italian   people.     The   possession   of   these 

counties  and  cities  by  Austria  had  been  the 

Who  will      greatest   source   of   trouble   between   the   two 

bid  highest   nations.     Italy    now    came    out    boldly,    and 

demanded,  as  the  price  of  her  keeping  out  of 

the  war,   that  Austria  give  to  her  this  land 


The  Map  of  Europe  233 

inhabited  by  Italians.  Germany  urged  Aus- 
tria to  do  this,  and  sent  as  her  special  ambassa- 
dor, to  keep  Italy  from  joining  her  enemies, 
Prince  von  Bulow,  whose  wife  was  an  Italian  _ 

Von  Bulow 

lady,    and   who   was   very   popular   with   the  in  Italy 
Italian  statesmen. 

For  months,  von  Bulow  argued  and  pleaded, 
first  trying  to  induce  Italy  to  accept  a  small  part 
of  the  disputed  territory  and  then,  when  he 
found  this  impossible,  doing  his  best  to  induce 
Austria  to  give  it  all.  Austria  was  stubborn. 
She  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  plan  of  giving 
away  her  cities.  She  offered  to  cede  some 
territory  if  Italy  should  wait  until  the  end  of 
the  war. 

This  did  not  satisfy  Italy.     She  was  by  no 

means  certain  that  Austria  and  Germany  were  , 

J  A  bird  in 

going  to  win  the  war  and  was  even  less  sure  that  the  hand- 
Austria  would  be  willing,  in  case  of  her  victory, 
to  give  up  a  foot  of  territory.  It  seemed  to 
the  Italian  statesmen  that  it  was  "now  or 
never"  if  Italy  wished  to  get  within  her  kingdom 
all  of  her  own  people.  In  the  month  of  May 
1915  Italy  threw  herself  into  the  struggle 
by  declaring  war  on  Austria  and  entering 
an  alliance  with  Russia,  France,  and  Eng- 
land. 

Meanwhile,  the  Russians  were  having  difficul- 
ties. They  had  millions  and  millions  of  men, 


(234) 


The  Map  of  Europe  235 

but  not  enough  rifles  to  equip  them  all.  They 
had  plenty  of  food  but  very  little  ammunition 
for  their  cannon.  Austria  and  Germany,  on 
the  other  hand,  had  been  manufacturing  shot 
and  shells  in  enormous  quantities,  and  from  the 
month  of  May,  when  the  Russians  had  crossed 
the  Carpathian  Mountains  and  were  threatening 
to  pour  down  on  Buda-Pest  and  Vienna,  they 

drove   them   steadily   back  until   the   first   of  Jhe  ?reat 

Russian 

October,  forcing  them  to  retreat  nearly  three  retreat 
hundred  miles. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Balkans  again  became 
the  seat  of  trouble.  You  will  recall  that 
Bulgaria,  who  had  grown  proud  because  of  her 
victory  over  Turkey  in  the  war  of  1912,  was  too 
grasping  when  it  came  to  a  division  of  the  con- 
quered territory.  Thus  she  brought  on  a 
second  war,  in  the  course  of  which  Greece  and 
Serbia  defeated  her,  while  Roumania  took  a 
slice  of  her  territory  and  the  Turks  recaptured 

the  city  of  Adrianople.     The  czar  of  Russia  had  _ 

Bulgaria's 

done  his  best  to  prevent  this  second  Balkan  grievances 
war,  even  sending  a  personal  telegram  to  Czar 
Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria  and  to  King  Peter  of 
Serbia,  begging  them  for  the  sake  of  the  Slavic 
race,  not  to  let  their  quarrels  come  to  blows. 
Bulgaria,  confident  of  her  ability  to  defeat 
Greece  and  Serbia,  had  disregarded  the  Rus- 
sians' pleadings,  and  as  a  result  Russia  did  not 


236 


The   Story   of 


Czar 

Ferdinand 
offers  his 
sword  to 
the  highest 
bidder 


interfere  to  save  her  when  her  neighbors  were 
robbing  her  of  part  of  the  land  which  she  had 
taken  from  Turkey. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  Macedonia  was  the 
country  which  Bulgaria  had  felt  most  sorry  to 
lose,  as  its  inhabitants  were  largely  Bulgarian  in 
their  blood,  although  many  Greeks  and  Serbs 
were  among  them.  Therefore,  just  as  Italy 
strove  by  war  and  diplomacy  to  add  Trentino  to 
her  nation,  so  Bulgaria  now  saw  her  chance  to 
gain  Macedonia  from  Serbia.  Accordingly,  she 
asked  the  four  great  powers  what  they  would 
give  her  in  case  she  entered  the  war  on  their 
side,  and  attacked  Turkey  by  way  of  Constan- 
tinople, while  the  French  and  English  were 
hammering  at  the  forts  along  the  Dardanelles.  * 

The  four  powers,  after  much  persuasion  and 
brow-beating,  finally  induced  Serbia  to  agree  to 
give  up  part  of  Serbian  Macedonia  to  Bulgaria. 
They  further  promised  Bulgaria  to  give  her  the 
city  of  Adrianople  and  the  territory  around  it 
which  Turkey  had  reconquered.  But  Bulgaria 
was  not  easily  satisfied.  She  wanted  more  than 
Serbia  was  willing  to  give;  she  wanted,  too,  the 
port  of  Kavala,  which  Greece  had  taken  from 
her.  This  the  allies  could  not  promise. 

In  the  meantime,  Bulgaria  was  bargaining 

*England  and  France  needed  wheat,  which  Russia  had  in  great 
quantities  at  her  ports  on  the  Black  Sea.  On  the  other  hand  France  and 
England,  by  supplying  Russia  with  rifles  and  ammunition,  could  strike 
a  hard  blow  at  Germany. 


The  Map  of  Europe  237 

with  Austria,  Germany,  and  Turkey.  France, 
England,  and  Russia  were  ready  to  pay  back 
Serbia  for  the  loss  of  Macedonia,  by  promising 
her  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in  case  they  won 
the  war  from  Austria.  In  like  fashion,  Austria  Diplomats 

ana  me 

and  Germany  promised  Bulgaria  some  Turkish  map  again 
territory   and   also   the   southern   part   of   the 
present  kingdom  of  Serbia,  in  case  she  entered 
the  war  on  their  side. 

Now  the  king  of  Bulgaria,  or  the  czar,  as 
he  prefers  to  call  himself,  is  a  German.  (As 
these  little  countries  won  their  independence 
from  Turkey,  they  almost  always  called  in 
foreign  princes  to  be  their  kings.  In  this  way 
it  had  come  about  that  the  king  of  Greece  was 
a  prince  of  Denmark,  the  king  of  Roumania  was 
a  German  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  while 
the  czar  of  Bulgaria  was  a  German  of  the  Germanic 
Coburg  family,  the  same  family  which  has  £rinces  on 

JMuuut 

furnished    England    and    Belgium    with    their  thrones 
kings.) 

The  Bulgarians  themselves  are  members  of 
the  Greek  Catholic  Church,  and  they  have  a 
very  high  regard  for  the  czar  of  Russia,  as  trie 
head  of  that  church.  Czar  Ferdinand  had  no 
such  feeling,  however.  He  wanted  to  be  the 
most  powerful  ruler  in  the  Balkan  states,  and 
it  made  no  difference  to  him  which  side  helped 
him  to  gain  his  object. 


238 


The   Story   of 


A    BOMB-PROOF    TRENCH    IN   THE    WESTERN   WAR   FRONT 


The  Map  of  Europe  239 

About  this  time,  the  Russians  had  been  forced 
to  retreat  to  a  line  running  south  from  Riga, 
on  the  Baltic  Sea,  to  the  northern  boundary 
of  Roumania.  The  French  and  English  had 
been  pounding  at  the  Dardanelles  for  some 
months,  but  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the 

Turks  seemed  likely  to  hold  them  out  of  Con-  The  Allies 

are 
stantinople   for   a   long   time    to    come.     The  checked 

Italians  had  not  been  able  to  make  much 
headway  against  the  Austrians  through  the 
mountainous  Alpine  country  where  the  fighting 
was  taking  place.  In  the  west,  the  Germans 
were  holding  firmly  against  the  attacks  of  the 
British  and  French.  The  czar  of  Bulgaria  and 
his  ministers,  thinking  that  the  German- 
Austrian-Turkish  alliance  could  win  with  their  _ 

Bulgaria 

help,    flung    their    nation    into    its    third    war  plunges  in 
within  four  years.     This  happened   in   Octo- 
ber, 1915. 

Now  at  the  close  of  the  second  Balkan  war, 
when    Serbia   and    Greece    defeated    Bulgaria, 
they  made  an  alliance,  by  which  each  agreed  to 
come  to  the  help  of  the  other  in  case  either  was  The 
attacked   by   Bulgaria.     Roumania,    too,    was  g^^ 
friendly  to  Greece  and  Serbia,  rather  than  to  treaty 
Bulgaria,  for  the  Roumanians  knew  that  Bul- 
garia was  very  anxious  to  get  back  the  territory 
of  which  Roumania  had  robbed  her,   in  the 
second  Balkan  war.     In  this  way,  the  Quadruple 


240  The   Story   of 

Entente  (Russia,  Italy,  France,  and  England) 
hoped  that  the  entry  of  Bulgaria  into  the  war, 
on  the  side  of  Germany  and  Turkey,  would 
bring  Greece  and  Roumania  in  on  the  other  side. 
The  Greek  people  were  ready  to  rush  to 
Serbia's  aid  and  so  was  the  Greek  prime  minis- 
ter. The  queen  of  Greece,  however,  is  a  sister 


Oueen  of  •  °^  ^e  German  emperor,  and  through  her  influ- 
the  Greeks  ence  with  her  husband  she  was  able  to  defeat  the 
plans  of  Venizelos  (ven  i  zeT6s),  the  prime  min- 
ister, who  was  notified  by  the  king  that  Greece 
would  not  enter  the  war.  Venizelos  accordingly 
resigned,  but  not  until  he  had  given  permission 
to  the  French  and  English  to  land  troops  at 
Salonika,  for  the  purpose  of  rushing  to  the  help 
of  Serbia.  (Greece  also  was  afraid  that  German 
and  Austrian  armies  might  lay  waste  her  terri- 
tory, as  they  had  Serbia's,  before  England  and 
France  could  come  to  the  rescue.) 

Meanwhile  poor  Serbia  was  in  a  desperate 

state.     The  two  Balkan  wars  had  drained  her  of 
The  woes 

of  Serbia  some  of  her  best  soldiers.  Twice  the  Austrians 
had  invaded  her  kingdom  in  this  war,  and  twice 
they  had  been  driven  out.  Then  came  a  dread- 
ful epidemic  of  typhus  fever  which  was  the  result 
of  unhealthful  conditions  caused  by  the  war. 
Now  the  little  kingdom,  attacked  by  the  Ger- 
mans and  Austrians  on  two  sides  and  by  the 
Bulgarians  on  a  third,  was  literally  fighting 


The  Map  of  Europe  241 

with  her  back  to  the  wall.  She  had  counted  on 
Greece  to  stand  by  her  promise  to  help  in  case  of 
an  attack  from  Bulgaria,  but  we  have  seen  how 
the  German  queen  of  Greece  had  been  able  to 
prevent  this.  Serbia  hoped  that  Roumania.  No  help 

from  her 

too,  would  come  to  her  help.     However,  as  you  neighbors 

have  been  told,   the  king  of  Roumania  is  a 

German  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  a  cousin 

of  the  emperor,  and  in  spite  of  the  sympathy  of 

his  people  for  Italy,  France,  and  Serbia,  he  was 

able  to  keep  them  from  joining  in  the  defense 

of  the  Serbs. 

Now  Roumania  ought  to  include  a  great  part 
of  Bessarabia  (bes  a  ra'bi  a),  which  is  the  near-  The 
€st  county  of  Russia,  and  also  the  greater  part  of  question 
Transylvania  and  Bukowina  (boo  ko  vi'na),  Roumania 
which  are  the  provinces  of  Austria-Hungary 
that  lie  nearest;  for  a  great  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  these  three  counties  are  Roumanians  by 
blood  and  language.  They  would  like  to  be 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Roumania,  and  Rou- 
mania would  like  to  possess  them.  The  Quad- 
ruple Entente  would  promise  Roumania  parts  of 
Transylvania  and  Bukowina  in  case  she  joined 
the  war  on  their  side,  while  the  Triple  Alliance 
was  ready  to  promise  her  Bessarabia.  Rou- 
mania, as  was  said  before,  was  originally  settled 
by  colonists  sent  out  from  Rome,  and  in  the 
eleventh  century  a  large  number  of  people  from 


242  The   Story   of 

the  north  of  Italy  settled  there.  On  this 
account,  Roumania  looks  upon  Italy  as  her 
mother  country,  and  it  was  thought  that  Italy's 
attack  upon  Austria  would  influence  her  to 
support  the  Entente. 

Each  country  wanted  to  be  a  friend  of  the 
winning  side,  in  order  to  share  in  the  spoils. 
In  this  way,  whenever  it  looked  as  if  the  Quad- 
ruple Entente  did  not  need  her  help  Roumania 
was  eager  to  offer  it,  at  a  price  which  seemed  to 
the  allies  too  high.  When,  however,  the  tide 
turned  the  other  way,  she  lost  her  enthusiasm 
for  the  cause  of  her  friends,  fearing  what  the 
central  empires  might  do  to  her. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  was  the  motive  of  Turkey  in  joining  the  war? 
(6)  Why  were  the  Russians  not  sorry  to  have  Turkey 
declare  war  on  them? 

(c)  What  were  the  feelings  of  the  Italian  people? 

(d)  What  were  the  Italian  diplomats  anxious  to  gain? 

(e)  What  were  the  demands  of  Czar  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria 
upon  the  Entente  powers? 

(/)    Why  did  Bulgaria  join  the  central  empires? 
(<?)  Why  did  Greece  keep  out  of  the  conflict? 
(h)  What  were  Roumania's  hopes? 


CHAPTER  XX 
EUROPE  AS  IT   SHOULD   BE 

Natural  boundaries  of  nations  in  Europe. —  Peoples  outside 
of  the  nations  with  whom  they  belong. —  The  mixture  of 
peoples  in  Austria-Hungary,  and  Russia. —  The  British 
Isles. —  The  Balkan  states.—  Recent  changes  in  the  map. — 
The  wrongs  done  by  mighty  nations  upon  their  weak  neighbors 
bring  no  happiness. 

We  have  several  times  shown  you,  in  the 
course  of  this  little  history,  maps  drawn  by 
kings  and  marked  off  by  diplomacy  and  through 
blood-shed.  Let  us  now  examine  a  map  of  boundaries 
Europe  divided  according  to  the  race  and  lan- 
guage of  its  various  peoples.  It  often  happens 
that  the  boundaries  set  by  nature,  like  seas, 
high  mountains,  and  broad  rivers,  divide  one 
people  from  another.  It  is  natural  that  the 
people  of  Italy,  for  instance,  hemmed  in  by  the 
Alps  to  the  north  and  by  the  water  on  all  other 
sides,  should  grow  to  be  like  each  other  and  come 
to  talk  a  common  language. 

In  the  same  way,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Greece,  Spain,  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Switzerland  have  boundaries  largely  set  by 
nature.  On  this  account,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  map  of  "  Europe  as  it  should  be"  which 
unites  people  of  the  same  blood  under  the  same 
243 


244 


The   Story   of 


France 
a  unit 


Walloons 

and 

Flemish 


government,  agrees  rather  closely  in  some  places 
with  the  map  of  Europe  as  it  is. 

The  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  of  Spain  and 
those  of  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  fit  pretty 
closely  the  countries  inhabited  by  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  peoples. 

There  are  a  few  Italians  in  France,  also  a 
few  Walloons  and  Flemish.  Otherwise  France 
is  largely  a  unit.  Some  of  the  French  people 
are  found  in  Switzerland  and  others  in  that  part 
of  the  German  Empire  which  was  taken  away 
from  France  after  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870. 

The  Danes  are  not  all  living  in  Denmark. 
A  great  many  of  them  inhabit  the  two  provinces 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  which  were  torn  away 
from  Denmark  by  Prussia  in  1864.  The  high 
mountains  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  sep- 
arate the  Norwegians  from  the  Swedes  about  as 
well  as  they  divide  the  countries  geographically. 

The  Hollanders  make  a  nation  by  themselves, 
but  part  of  the  northwestern  corner  of  the 
German  Empire  is  also  peopled  by  Dutch.  The 
territory  around  Aix-La-Chapelle,  although  part 
of  the  German  Empire,  is  inhabited  by  Wal- 
loons, a  Celtic  people  who  speak  a  sort  of 
French.  Belgium,  small  as  it  is,  ought  properly 
to  be  divided  into  two  little  countries,  one  made 
up  of  Walloons,  the  other  of  the  Flemish. 


The  Map  of  Europe  245 

The  German  Empire  does  not  include  all  of 
the  Germans.  A  great  many  of  these  are  to  be 
found  in  Austria  proper,  Styria  (sty'ria),  and  the 

northern  Tyrol  (ty'rol)  (western  counties  of  the  Germans 

J  .  outside  of 

Austrian  Empire),   as  well  as  in  the  eastern  Germany 

half  of  Switzerland  and  the  edges  of  Bohemia. 
Germans  are  also  to  be  found  in  parts  of  Hun- 
gary; and  in  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia 
there  are  over  two  million  of  them. 

All  of  the  Italians  are  not  in  the  kingdom  of  _ 

Italians  not 

Italy.  The  Island  of  Corsica,  which  belongs  to  in  Italy 
France,  is  inhabited  by  Italians.  The  province 
of  Trentino  (tren  ti'no)  (the  southern  half  of  the 
Austrian  Tyrol)  is  inhabited  almost  entirely  by 
Italians,  as  is  also  Istria,  which  includes  the 
cities  of  Trieste,  Pola,  and  Fiume.  Certain 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Dalmatia  are  also  largely 
Italian  in  their  population. 

The  republic  of  Switzerland  is  inhabited  by 
French,   Italians,   and   Germans.     Besides  the 
languages  of  these  three  nations,  a  fourth  tongue  £he 
is  spoken  there.     In  the  valleys  of  the  south-  people 
eastern  corner  of  Switzerland  are  found  people 
who  talk  a  corruption  of  the  old  Latin,  which 
they  call  Romaunsch  or  Romansh. 

Austria-Hungary,  as  has  already  been  said,  is 
a  jumble  of  languages  and  nationalities.  This 
empire  includes  nearly  a  million  Italians  in 
its  southwestern  corner,  and  three  million 


246 


The   Story   of 


The 
mixture 
in  Austria 


Discon- 
tented 
French 
and  Danes 


Russia's 

many 

peoples 


Roumanians  in  Transylvania.  It  has  as  its 
subjects  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  several 
million  Serbians.  In  Slavonia  (sla  vo'ni  a) , 
Croatia  (cro  a'tia) ,  and  Dalmatia  (dal  ma  tia) , 
it  has  two  or  three  million  Slavs,  who  are  closely 
related  to  the  Serbians.  In  the  north,  its 
government  rules  over  several  million  Czechs 
(checks)  (Bohemians  and  Moravians)  who 
strongly  desire  to  have  a  country  of  their  own. 
It  controls  also  two  million  Slovaks,  cousins 
of  the  Czechs,  who  also  would  like  their  inde- 
pendence. In  the  county  of  Carniola  (car  ni  6'- 
la),  there  are  one  and  a  half  million  Slovenes, 
another  Slavic  people  belonging  either  by  them- 
selves or  with  their  cousins,  the  Croatians 
and  Serbs. 

The  German  Empire  includes  several  hundred 
thousand  Frenchmen,  who  want  to  get  back 
under  French  control,  a  million  or  two  Danes, 
who  want  once  more  to  belong  to  Denmark,  and 
several  million  Poles,  who  desire  to  see  their 
country  again  united. 

Russia  rules  over  a  mixture  of  peoples  almost 
as  numerous  as  those  composing  Austria- 
Hungary.  The  Russians  themselves  are  not 
one  people.  The  Red  Russians  or  Ruthenians 
are  quite  different  from  the  people  of  Little 
Russia,  and  they  in  turn  are  different  from  the 
people  of  Great  Russia,  to  the  north.  The 


EUROPE   AS   IT   SHOULD  BE 


COUNTRY  OF    THE  — 

1.  Slovenes 

2.  Romansh 

3.  Germans 

4.  Walloons 

5.  Flemish 

6.  Dutch 

7.  Danes 

8.  Gaels 

9.  English 

10.  Irish 

11.  Welsh 

12.  French 

13.  Basques 

14.  Portuguese 

15.  Spanish 

16.  Italians 

17.  Albanians 

18.  Greeks 

19.  Turks 

20.  Bulgars 

21.  Roumanians 

22.  Serbs  and  Croats 

23.  Magyars  (Hungarians) 

24.  Czechs    (Bohemians) 

25.  Slovaks 

26.  Poles 

27.  Letts    and    Lithuanians 

28.  Russians 

29.  Finns   and  Estonians 

30.  Lapps 

31.  Swedes 

32.  Norwegians 


The  Map  of  Europe  247 


POLISH    CHILDREN 

Baltic  provinces  are  peopled,  not  by  Russians, 
but  by  two  million  Germans,  an  equal  number 
of  Letts  and  a  somewhat  greater  number  of 
Lithuanians.  North  of  Riga  are  to  be  found 
the  Esthonians,  cousins  of  the  Finns.  North- 
west of  Petrograd  lies  Finland,  whose  people, 
with  the  Esthonians,  do  not  belong  to  the 
Indo-European  family,  and  who  would  dearly 
love  to  have  a  separate  government  of  their 
own. 

You  have  already  been  told  in  Chapter  V 
that  the  country  of  the  English,  if  limited  by 
race,  does  not  include  Wales,  Cornwall,  or  the  British  Isles 
north  of  Scotland,  but  instead  takes  in  the  north- 


248  The   Story   of 

eastern  part  of  Ireland  and  the  southern  half  of 
the  former  Scottish  kingdom. 

Turning  to  the  Balkan  states,  we  find  our 
hardest  task,  for  the  reason  that  peoples  of 
different  nationalities  are  hopelessly  mixed  and 
jumbled.  However,  the  kingdom  of  Bulgaria 
ought  to  include  the  territory  now  held  by 
Roumania  south  of  the  Danube  River.  Parts 
of  eastern  and  southern  Serbia  and  portions  of 
Grecian  Macedonia  also  are  largely  Bulgarian 
Balk  m  ^ne*r  makeup.  Transylvania,  with  the  excep- 

mixture  tion  of  the  two  little  islands  mentioned  before 
(Chapter  V)  is  inhabited  by  Roumanians.  The 
southern  half  of  the  Austrian  province  of  Buko- 
wina  also  ought  to  be  part  of  Roumania,  as 
should  the  greater  part  of  the  Russian  state  of 
Bessarabia.  Whereas  Roumania  now  has  a 
population  of  7,000,000,  there  are  between  five 
and  six  million  of  her  people  who  live  outside 
her  present  boundaries. 

The  shores  and  islands  of  the  Aegean  Sea 
should  belong  to  Greece.     Greek  people  have 
inhabited  them  for  thousands  of  years.     The 
Albanians  are  a  separate  people,  while  Monte- 
negro and  Bosnia  should  be  joined  to  Serbia. 
Turn  back  to  previous  maps  of  Europe  in  this 
T1}le   .         volume  and  you  will  see  that  most  of  the  changes 

changing 

map  that  have  been  made  of  late  years  are  bring- 

ing boundaries  nearer  where  they  should  be. 


The  Map  of  Europe  249 

You  will  also  note  that  wherever  there  have  been 
recent  changes  contrary  to  this  plan,  they  have 
always  resulted  in  more  bloodshed.  The  par- 
tition of  Poland,  the  annexation  of  Schleswig, 
Alsace,  and  Lorraine  to  Germany,  the  division 
of  Bulgarian  Macedonia  between  Serbia  and 
Greece,  and  the  seizure  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina by  Austria  are  good  examples. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What   countries   of  Europe  have  fairly  well-marked 
natural  boundaries? 

(6)  Who  are  the  Walloons? 

(c)  Who  are  the  Romansh  people? 

(d)  To  what  other  people  are  the  Esthonians  related? 


(250) 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  COST   OF  IT  ALL 

What  war  debts  mean. —  The  devastation  of  farms  and 
villages. —  Diseases  which  travel  with  war. —  The  men  picked 
to  die  first. —  The  survivors  and  their  children. —  The  effect 
on  France  of  Napoleon's  wars. —  What  Hannibal  did  to  Rome. 
—  What  happened  to  the  Franks. —  Sweden  before  and  after 
the  wars  of  Charles  XII. —  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  Great 
War. —  War's  effect  on  the  finer  feelings  of  men. —  Arbitration 
and  an  international  court. —  An  opportunity  for  some  nation. 

In  the  meanwhile,  all  the  countries  in  the  war 
were  rapidly  rushing  toward  bankruptcy.  Eng- 
land spent  $10,000,000  a  day;  France,  Germany, 
and  Austria  nearly  as  much  apiece.  Thus 
in  the  course  of  a  year,  a  debt  of  $100  was 
piled  upon  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the 

A  colossal 

British  kingdom.  The  average  family  consists  debt 
of  five  persons,  so  that  this  means  a  debt  of 
3500  per  family  for  each  year  that  the  war 
lasted.  The  income  of  the  average  family 
in  Great  Britain  is  less  than  $500  in  a  year,  and 
the  amount  of  money  that  they  can  save  out 
of  this  sum  is  very  small.  Yet  the  British 
people  are  obliged  to  add  this  tremendous 
debt  to  the  already  very  large  amount  that 
they  owe,  and  will  have  to  go  on  paying  interest 
on  it  for  hundreds  of  years. 

251 


252 


The   Story   of 


In  the  same  fashion,  debts  piled  up  for 
the  peoples  of  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia 
and  all  the  countries  in  the  war.  In  spite  of 
what  we  have  said  above  of  the  average  income 
of  English  families,  Great  Britain  is  rich  when 
compared  with  Austria  and  Russia.  What  is 
more,  Great  Britain  is  practically  unscarred, 

while  on  the  continent  great  tracts  of  land  which 
Ruin  and 

devastation  used  to  be  well  cultivated  farms  have  been  laid 
waste  with  reckless  abandon.  East  Prussia, 
Poland,  Lithuania,  Galicia,  part  of  Hungary, 
Alsace,  Serbia,  Bosnia,  northern  France,  south- 
western Austria-Hungary,  and  all  of  Belgium,  a 
territory  amounting  to  one-fifth  of  the  whole  of 
Europe,  were  scarred  and  burned  and  devas- 
tated. 

It  will  be  years  and  years  before  these 
countries  recover  from  the  effects  of  war's 
invasion.  For  every 'man  killed  on  the  field  of 
battle,  it  is  estimated  that  two  people  die  among 

combatants  the  noncombatants.  Children  whose  fathers 
are  at  the  front,  frail  women  trying  to  do  the 
work  of  men,  aged  inhabitants  of  destroyed 
villages  die  by  the  thousands  from  want  of 
food  and  shelter. 

In  the  trail  of  war  come  other  evils.  People 
do  not  have  time  to  look  after  their  health  or 
'even  to  keep  clean.  As  a  result,  diseases  like 
the  plagues  of  olden  times,  which  civilization 


Death 
among 
the  non- 


(253) 


254 


The   Story   of 


thought  it  had  killed,  come  to  life  again  and 

destroy    whole    cities.     The    dreadful    typhus 

fever  killed  off  one-fifth  of  the  population  of 

Plagues        Serbia    during    the   winter    of    1914.     Cholera 

and  fevers    raged  among  the  Austrian  troops  in  the  fall  of 

the  same  year.     For  every  soldier  who  is  killed 

on  the  field  of  battle,   three  others  die  from 

disease  or  wounds  or  lack  of  proper  care. 

In  time  of  war,  the  first  men  picked  are  the 
very  flower  of  the  country,  the  strong,  the 
athletic,  the  brave,  the  very  sort  of  men  who 
ought  to  be  carefully  saved  as  the  fathers  of  the 
people  to  come.  As  these  are  killed  or  disabled, 
survival  of  g°vernments  draw  on  the  older  men  who  are 
the  unfit  still  vigorous  and  hardy.  Then  finally  they  call 
out  the  unfit,  the  sickly,  the  weak,  the  aged,  and 
the  young  boys.  As  a  general  rule,  the  members 
of  this  last  class  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  men 
who  survive  the  war.  They,  instead  of  the 
strong  and  healthy,  become  the  fathers  of  the 
next  generation  of  children. 

In  the  days  of  the  Roman  republic,  220  years 
B.C.,  there  stood  on  the  coast  of  North  Africa 
a  city  named  Carthage,  which,  like  Rome, 
owned  lands  far  and  near.  Carthage  would 
have  been  satisfied  to  "live  and  let  live,"  but 
Rome  would  not  have  it  so.  As  a  result,  the 
two  cities  engaged  in  three  terrible  wars  which 
ended  in  the  destruction  of  Carthage.  But 


The  Map  of  Europe  255 

before  Carthage  was  finally  blotted  off  the  map, 
her  great  general,  Hannibal,  dealt  Rome  a  blow 
which  brought  her  to  her  knees,  and  came  very 
near  destroying  her  completely.     Five  Roman  beginning 
armies,  averaging  30,000  men  apiece,  he  trapped  °f  the 
and  slaughtered.     The  death  of  these  150,000  of  Rome 
men  was  a  loss  from  which  Rome  never  recov- 
ered.    From  this   time   on,   her   citizens  were 
made    of    poorer    stuff,    and    the    old    Roman 
courage  and   Roman   honor   and   Roman   free 
government  began  to  decline. 

The  Germanic  tribes  (the  Goths,  Franks, 
Lombards,  etc.)  who  swarmed  into  the  Roman 
Empire  about  the  year  400  A.D.,  although  they 
were  barbarians,  nevertheless  had  many  excel- 
lent qualities.  They  were  brave,  hardy  men 
and  stood  for  freedom  from  tyrants.  How- 
ever, they  fought  so  many  wars  that  they  were  Bidders  of 
graduallv  killed  off.  Take  the  Franks,  for  the  sword 

perish  by 

example ;  the  three  grandsons  of  Charlemagne,  the  sword 
who  had  divided  up  his  great  empire,  fought  a 
disastrous  war  with  one  another,  which  ended 
in  a  great  battle  that  almost  wiped  out  the  J^1*8* 
Frankish  nation.    This  happened  about  840  A.D.  Franks 

Sweden  was  once  one  of  the  great  powers  of 
Europe.  However,  about  1700  A.D.,  she  had  a 
king  named  Charles  XII,  who  tried  to  conquer 
Russia  and  Poland.  He  was  finally  defeated 
at  a  little  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia 


256 


The   Story   of 


The 

downfall 
of  Sweden 


nearly  a  thousand  miles  away  from  home,  and 

his  great  army  was  wiped  out.     After  his  time, 

Sweden  sank  to  the  level  of  "a  second  class 

n  ati  on.     The 

bodies  of  her 

best  men  had 

been  strewn  on 

batt lef  iel  d  s 

reaching   from 

the   Gulf    of 

Bothnia   to   the 

Black  Sea. 
For  eighty 

years    after   the 

time    of    Napo- 
leon, the  French 

nation  showed  a 

lower  birth  rate 

and  produced 

smaller    and 

weaker    men 

The  cost  of  than  it  had  one  hundred  years  previously.  The 
waasrtstQf  the  reason  for  this  is  easily  found.  During  the 
France  twenty-three  years  of  terrible  fighting  which 

followed  the  execution  of  the  king,  France  left 

her  finest  young  men  dead  all  over  the  face  of 

Europe.     They  died  by  the  thousands  in  Spain, 

in  Italy,  in  Austria,  in  Germany,  and  above  all, 

amidst   the   snows   and  ice   of   Russia.     Only 


CHARLES    XII    OF    SWEDEN 


The  Map  of  Europe  257 

within  the  last  twenty  years  have  the  French, 
through  their  new  interest  in  out-of-door  sports 
and  athletics,  begun  once  more  to  build  up  a 
hardy,  vigorous  race  of  young  men.  And  now 
came  this  terrible  war  to  set  France  back  where 
she  was  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Picture  Europe  at  the  close  of  this  great  war; 
the  flower  of  her  young  manhood  gone;  the  sur- 
vivors laden  with  debts  which  will  keep  them  in 
poverty  for  years  to  come;  trade  and  agriculture  Tfhflfruits 
at  a  standstill;  but  worst  of  all,  the  feeling  of  great  war 
friendship  between  nations,  of  world  brother- 
hood, postponed  one  hundred  years.     Hatred 
of  nation  for  nation  is  stronger  than  ever. 

One  of  the  worst  features  of  war  is  that  it  blots 
out  many  of  the  finer  feelings.  The  different 
armies  are  taught  that  it  is  right  and  proper 
to  kill  their  opponents  and  that  God  approves 
of  this  slaughter.  "God  is  with  us,"  says 
the  German  kaiser,  "and  He  will  punish 
England."  "With  the  help  of  God,"  says  the 
czar  of  Russia,  "we  are  fighting  a  holy  cam- 
paign against  our  enemies." 

This  is  the  result  of  militarism,  working  upon 
ignorance.  War  breeds  malice;  war  breeds 
hate;  war  brutalizes  those  who  take  part  in  it. 
They  become  callous,  and  have  less  pity  for  their 
fellow  men.  Death  and  suffering  are  on  all  sides 
of  them,  and  they  lose  their  sense  of  mercy. 


258 


The   Story   of 


Brutality 
bred  by 
war 


War 
growing 
more 
terrible 


In  April,  1912,  a  great  English  steamship 
went  down  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  A  thrill 
of  horror  went  through  the  world.  Germany 
and  Austria  mourned  with  the  rest  of  the 
nations  over  England's  loss.  Three  years 
later,  another  English  ocean  liner  was  sunk, 
drowning  hundreds  of  innocent  women  and 
children.  Thousands  of  the  same  Germans 
who  had  mourned  in  1912,  now  threw  up  their 
caps  and  shouted  for  joy. 

German  shells  set  on  fire  a  French  church 
used  as  a  hospital,  and  many  wounded  German 
soldiers  were  burned  to  death.  Thousands  of 
English  and  French,  who,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances would  be  merciful  and  kind,  exulted 
and  said,  "It  served  them  right." 

War  turns  the  thoughts  of  the  best  brains  of  a 
nation  away  from  plans  for  the  betterment  of 
their  fellow  men  and  sets  them  to  devising  more 
fiendish  methods  for  killing.  The  time  was 
when  only  the  men  in  the  armies  were  in  danger 
of  losing  their  lives.  Today,  no  child  is  sure 
that  a  death  bomb  from  the  sky  will  not  drop 
upon  him  or  a  deadly  torpedo  sink  the  boat 
in  which  he  is  traveling.  It  was  said  ten  years 
ago  that  there  would  never  be  another  great  war, 
because  war  with  all  of  the  improved  methods 
'of  killing  had  become  so  terrible  that  no  nation 
would  dare  engage  in  it. 


The  Map  of  Europe  259 

It  is  probable  that  if  Austria  and  Germany 
had  known  that  England  would  enter  the  war 
they  would  never  have  pressed  their  impossible 
demands  on  Serbia.  The  German  generals 
expected  the  French  to  take  refuge  in  forts,  as 
they  had  in  the  war  of  1870,  and  theyknew  that 
no  fort  ever  built  could  withstand  their  wonder- 
ful new  guns,  the  existence  of  which  had  been 
kept  a  profound  secret.  Germany  had  con- 
fidently counted  on  crushing  the  French  army 
with  one  quick  drive,  and  then  on  returning 
with  all  forces  to  overwhelm  the  slow-moving 
masses  of  Russia.  The  Kaiser  expected  the 
war  to  be  short,  like  those  of  1866  and  1870. 
So  did  the  Russians,  who  confidently  expected 
to  crush  Austria  easily,  and  then  help  France 
finish  off  Germany  later  on.  The  authors  of 
the  war  are  like  those  who  kindle  a  small  fire  started 


to  burn  off  some  weeds,  only  to  have  it  get  away 
from  their  control,  and  consume  forests,  fields,  trolled 
and  towns. 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  How  does  a  nation  at  war  increase  its  debts? 
(6)  Why  do  diseases  thrive  in  war  time? 

(c)  What  became  of  the  Goths  and  Franks? 

(d)  Why  was  the  reign  of  Charles  XII  disastrous  to  Sweden? 

(e)  What  was  the  effect  of  Napoleon's  many  wars  upon  the 
strength  of  the  French  nation? 

(/)    Is  war  growing  more  humane? 


Four 
causes 
of  wars 


The  wars 

of 

barbarism 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  CAUSES  OF  WAR  AND  A  REMEDY 

The  four  causes  of  wars. —  The  barbarian  instinct. —  The 
ambition  of  kings. —  Trade  rivalry  and  expansion  of  colonies. 
—  Wars  which  have  made  or  preserved  a  nation. —  A  plan  for 
popular  vote  on  war. —  American  wealth  and  Mexican  invest- 
ments.—  William  Kent's  attitude. —  Intelligent  voters  a 
safeguard  against  war. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  in  the  first  chapter,  it 
was  stated  that  almost  all  wars  could  be  traced 
to  one  of  the  following. four  causes:  (1)  The 
fighting  and  plundering  instinct  among  bar- 
barous tribes;  (2)  the  ambition  of  kings  to 
enlarge  their  domains;  (3)  the  greed  of  traders 
shown  in  trying  to  increase  their  commerce  at 
the  expense  of  the  merchants  of  some  other 
nation;  (4)  a  people's  desire  for  freedom  from 
foreign  rulers  and  for  national  unity. 

The  wars  which  followed  the  great  Germanic 
invasions  are  to  be  classed  under  the  first  head- 
ing. The  invaders  themselves  in  the  end  did 
not  profit  by  their  fighting.  As  long  as  they 
stayed  in  their  native  country,  they  were  hardy, 
healthy  peoples.  Transplanted  to  the  south- 
,  land,  they  either  lost  their  courage  and  valor 
and  disappeared,  like  the  Vandals,  or  they  were 
260 


The  Map  of  Europe  261 

killed  off  fighting  with  each  other,  as  happened 
to  the  Franks. 

The  Finns  used  to  attack  and  plunder  the 
coast  of  Sweden  until  the  Swedes,  in  self-defense, 
organized  an  expedition  and  conquered  Fin- 
land, whose  people  never  again  became  inde- 
pendent. In  this  way,  they  brought  their 
slavery  upon  themselves  by  their  own  bar- 
barous attacks  on  their  neighbors,  who  otherwise 
would  have  been  content  to  leave  them  in  peace. 

The  ambition  of  kings  has  been  responsible 
for  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  wars.  Roman  The 
emperors  were  ambitious  to  include  the  whole  of  ambition 
world  in  their  empire.  William,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  was  ambitious  to  become  king  of 
England.  His  descendant  Edward  III  was 
ambitious  to  become  king  of  France  as  well  as  of 
the  British  Isles.  The  Hundred  Years  War  was 
the  result.  Successive  sultans  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks  were  ambitious  to  spread  their  empire 
over  all  southern  Europe.  As  a  result,  their 
subjects,  as  well  as  the  peoples  whom  they 
attacked,  have  been  shedding  their  blood  for 
500  years. 

King  Philip  II  of  Spain  was  ambitious  to 
conquer  England.  As  a  result,  thousands  of 
Spaniards  perished  in  the  defeat  of  the  great 
Armada  (ar  ma/da)  as  his  fleet  was  called. 
King  Louis  XIV  of  France  was  ambitious 


262  The   Story   of 

to  rule  all  of  western  Europe.  Untold  suffering 
followed  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley 
of  the  Rhine.  King  Charles  XII  of  Sweden 
wished  to  be  lord  of  both  Poland  and  Russia. 
Sweden  never  recovered  from  the  terrible 
defeats  given  its  army.  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia  was  ambitious  to  enlarge  his  kingdom. 
He  seized  a  province  from  Austria  and  after- 
wards helped  to  tear  apart  the  unhappy  king- 
dom of  Poland.  Wars  and  revolts  caused  by 
these  two  acts  lasted  for  nearly  one  hundred 
years. 

Numerous  czars  of  Russia  have  been  am- 
bitious to  extend  the  boundaries  of  their  empire 
to  include  Finland,  Poland,  the  Balkan  states, 
and  Turkey.  This  ambition  is  still  alive, 
and  may  be  responsible  for  as  much  suffering 
in  the  future  as  it  has  been  for  the  past  three 
hundred  years.  Czar  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria 
was  ambitious  to  be  the  most  powerful  ruler 
in  southeastern  Europe.  The  result  of  this 
was  the  second  Balkan  war  of  1913  and  Bul- 
garia's entry  into  the  great  war  two  years  later. 

Under  the  third  heading,  we  find  wars  like 
those  fought  between  Great  Britain  and  Hol- 

The  wars 

of  trade  land  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  for  the 
trade  of  the  far  east,  and  the  wars  brought  on 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  in  India 
between  France  and  England.  In  like  manner, 


The  Map  of  Europe  263 

Spain  and  England  fought  for  the  gold  of 
America,  and  Turkey  and  Italy,  only  recently, 
for  the  opportunity  to  colonize  Tripoli.  Another 
war  of  this  type  was  that  in  1904  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  both  of  whom  were  anxious  for  the 
trade  of  Manchuria  and  Korea. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  nations  have  to  fight 
in  order  to  get  more  territory  for  their  crowded  The  alleged 

need  of 

populations.  It  was  claimed  that  the  Japanese  expansion 
needed  to  control  Korea  and  Manchuria  in  order 
to  have  more  room  for  their  40,000,000  people, 
who  were  crowded  into  a  few  tiny  islands. 
In  the  same  way,  it  was  said  that  Germany's 
population  was  getting  so  numerous  that  she 
needed  to  fight  in  1914  in  order  to  get  room  to 
expand.  The  foolishness  of  this  argument 
can  readily  be  seen.  Belgium  has  nearly  six 
hundred  people  to  the  square  mile,  while 
Germany  averages  three  hundred.  No  one 
ever  suggested  that  Belgium  needed  to  fight 
in  order  to  get  more  territory  for  her  inhabi- 
tants. Nor  was  it  necessary  for  Japan  to  fight 
Russia  in  order  to  colonize  her  people  in  Man- 
churia. Japanese  could  have  emigrated  to 
the  mainland  whether  Japan  controlled  that 
country  or  not. 

There  remains  the  fourth  reason,  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  a  people  for  freedom  from  oppression  ££e  wars 
and  for  national  unity.     Of  this  type  was  our  freedom 


264  The   Story   of 

own  war  of  1776  against  England.  The  wars 
between  Italy  and  Austria  in  1859  and  1866 
were  of  this  kind  also.  The  war  of  the  four 
Balkan  states  against  Turkey  in  1912  is  another 
example.  This  fourth  class  of  wars  would 
never  have  been  necessary  had  it  not  been  for 
the  wrongs  previously  done  by  the  ambition  of 
kings.  If  the  second  cause  were  removed,  the 
fourth  would  not  exist. 

The  greatest  remedy  for  war  is  intelligent 
.  government  by  the  people.  Let  all  govern- 

forwar  ments,  before  declaring  war,  state  the  reason 
why  they  think  war  necessary  and  then  allow 
their  peoples  to  vote  on  the  matter.  Let  a 
record  be  kept  of  each  man's  ballot,  with  the 
understanding  that  those  who  vote  for  war  shall 
be  the  first  to  be  drafted  for  the  army  when  war 
breaks  out.  Let  it  be  understood  that  no  one 
who  has  voted  for  peace  shall  be  forced  to  serve 
in  the  army  until  all  those  who  voted  for  war 
are  already  in  arms.  There  are  plenty  of  people 
who  for  their  own  selfish  reasons  would  vote  for 
war,  if  they  knew  that  they  themselves  would 
never  have  to  take  their  places  in  the  trenches. 

In  the  early  part  of  1914  many  American 
speculators  who  had  money  invested  in  mines 
and  plantations  in  Mexico  were  doing  their  best 
to  involve  us  in  a  war  with  that  country.  Their 
idea  was  that  the  value  of  their  property  would 


The  Map  of  Europe  265 

be  increased  because  of  the  security  they  would   . 

Americans 

enjoy   under   the   government   of   the   United  in  Mexico 
States. 

At  that  time,  Congressman  William  Kent  of 
California,  who  is  a  very  wealthy  man  and  has 
large  amounts  of  money  invested  in  Mexico, 
made  a  statement  which  ought  to  go  down  in 
history.  After  explaining  that  he  had  a  great 
deal  of  money  at  stake  and  that  he  was  likely  to 
lose  it  because  of  internal  troubles  in  Mexico, 
he  added  that  he  did  not  care  enough  for  his 
Mexican  investments  to  run  the  risk  of  being 
killed  in  the  defense  of  the  property;  nor  would 

he  send  his  son  or  brother  to  defend  it.     "And   . 

A  noble 

so,"  he  concluded,  "I  would  be  a  coward  and  a  sentiment 
murderer  if  I  voted  to  send  another  man's  son  or 
brother  to  be  shot  in  defense  of  my  property." 
When  people  have  learned  the  folly  of  most 
wars  and  have  realized  that  no  happiness  ever 
came  to  them  through  wars  of  conquest,  it  will 
be  impossible  for  kings  and  czars  to  force  their 
subjects  to  fight.  Popular  government  is  neces- 
sary, but  popular  government  is  dangerous 
unless  the  people  who  have  it  are  intelligent. 
The  South  American  republics  are  supposed  to 
be  ruled  by  their  people,  but  throughout  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  the  ignorance  of  South 
Americans  was  even  greater  than  that  of  The  need 
Europeans,  these  countries  were  constantly  education 


266  The   Story   of 

embroiled  in  wars  or  revolutions.     The  great 
antidote,  then,  for  war  is  education. 

The   only   solution   of   the   problem  is   thai 
nations  disband  their  armies  and  cease  building 
An  inter-      ships  of  war.     An  agreement  will  have  to  be 
national       signed  by  all  countries  to  refer  any  disputes  to  a 
arbitration    court  composed  of  men  from  many  nations. 

In  1870,  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
had  a  dispute  which  might  well  have  led  to  war. 
Instead  of  fighting  over  it,  however,  they  laid 
their  trouble  before  a  court  of  five  men,  a  Swiss, 
an  Italian,  a  Brazilian,  an  Englishman,  and  an 
American.  This  court,  by  a  vote  of  four  to  one 
decided  against  England,  and  England  accepted 
the  decision  as  final,  although  it  cost  her  many 
millions  of  dollars. 

A  small  fleet  of  vessels  and  a  small  army  of 
police  should  be  put  at  the  service  of  the  court 
to  enforce  its  decisions,  if  necessary. 

In  the  meantime,  in  order  that  wars  shall 
cease,  some  one  nation  or  group  of  nations  must 

Force  not  a 

necessity  take  the  lead  in  disbanding  armies  and  ceasing 
to  build  warships.  As  long  as  a  country  has 
an  army  and  a  navy,  it  will  also  have  a  military 
class.  Their  trade  is  war,  and  they  are  not 
happy  to  remain  idle. 

Be  There  is  a  fine  old  poem  written  nearly  2000 

honorable'   years  agO  by  the  Roman  poet,  Horace,  which 

not  begins 


The  Map  of  Europe  267 

Integer  vitae  scelerisque  purus 
Non  eget  Mauris  jaculis  nee  arcu 
Nee  venenatis  gravida  sagittis 
Fusee,  pharetra. 

The  lesson  of  the  poem  is  that  any  man  who 
is  pure  of  heart  and  at  peace  with  his  fellow  men 
may  wander  unarmed  through  the  world's  wild- 
est places,  for  no  evil  will  befall  him.  May  we  not 
hope  that  some  nation  or  group  of  nations  will 
have  the  courage  and  the  confidence  in  the  force 
of  public  opinion  to  put  this  ideal  into  practice. 

The  nation  (or  group  of  nations)  that  does 

this,  that  first  appeals  to  the  justice  and  fairness  Who  will 

.  J  set  the 

of  her  sister  nations  will  be  remembered  in  example 

history  as  greater  than  Persia,  greater  than 
Macedonia,  greater  than  Rome,  greater  than 
all  the  conquerors  of  the  world. 

Some  time,  nations  will  learn  that  other 
nations  have  the  right  to  live,  and  that  no 
country  can  wrong  another  through  force  of 
arms  without  suffering  for  it  in  the  end.  In  a  Jfh 
blunted  conscience,  in  the  loss  of  the  sympathy  people 
of  the  rest  of  the  world,  in  a  lessening  of  the 
Christ-spirit  of  doing  good  to  others,  the  nation 
which  resorts  to  force  to  gratify  its  own  selfish 
ends,  like  the  individual,  pays  the  full  penalty 
for  its  misdeeds.  It  was  a  great  American  who 
said,  "The  world  is  my  country  and  mankind 
are  my  brothers." 


268  The   Story   of 

Questions  for  Review 

(a)  What  became  of  the  barbarians  who  invaded  the  Roman 
empire? 

(6)  Has  the  increase  in  size  of  kingdoms  brought  any  happi- 
ness to  their  people? 

(c)  Why  did  Japan  and  Russia  fight  in  1904? 

(d)  Is  there  any  nation  where  the  people  have  the  sole 
power  of  declaring  war? 

(e)  Why  have  the  South  American  republics  fought  so 
many  wars? 

(/)    Suggest  some  solution  for  the  problem  of  war. 

(g)  What  is  meant  by  arbitration? 

(h)  Why  does  not  some  one  nation  throw  down  its  arms? 


PRONOUNCING  GLOSSARY 

In  this  glossary  it  will  be  noted  that  as  a  general  rule  the 
English  pronunciation  is  given  for  names  that  have  become 
at  all  familiar  in  history  or  geography.  Thus  the  English 
Cra'cow  is  given  instead  of  the  Polish  Kra'koof  or  the  German 
Kra'kau. 

On  the  other  hand  names  like  Koumanova  or  Dobrudja 
must  be  given  as  the  natives  of  these  places  pronounce  them, 
as  there  is  no  recognized  English  pronunciation. 

In  certain  cases  where  there  are  several  current  pronun- 
ciations, the  author  has  been  forced  to  make  a  selection, 
arbitrarily.  Thus  a  seaport  in  Greece,  which  has  changed 
hands  recently,  has  no  less  than  five  names.  Its  Greek  name 
is  pronounced  Th6ssal6nyi'ki,  while  other  nations  term  it 
variously  Salonika,  Selanik',  So'lon,  Saldni'kii,  or  Salo'nica. 

Some  sounds,  again,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  English 
speaking  people  to  reproduce.  These  are  indicated  by 
English  syllables  .which  approximate  them  as  nearly  as 
possible. 

Not  every  proper  noun  which  is  used  in  the  text  will  be 
found  pronounced  in  the  glossary.  It  is  assumed  that  such 
names  as  Austria,  Bismarck,  etc.,  can  hardly  be  mispro- 
nounced. 


Aegean  (e  ge'an)  Arminius  (ar  mini  us) 

Agadir  (a  ga  dir')  Avlona  (av  lo'na) 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks  la  sha-  Baden  (ba'den) 

peT)  Balkan  (bal  kan')  or  (bol'kan) 

Albania  (al  ba'n'i  a)  Banat  (ban'at) 

Algeciras  (al  jS  si'ras)  or  (al-  Basques  (basks) 

j6  si'ras)  Bastille  (ba  stil') 

Alsace  (al  sas')  Bavaria  (ba  va'ri  a) 

Andrassy  (an  dras'sy)  Belfort  (bel'for) 

Aragon  (a'ra  g6n)  Bernadotte  (ber'na  d6t) 

Armada  (ar  ma/da)  Bessarabia  (b6s  sa  ra'b'i  a)  or 
Armenians  (ar  me'ni  ans)  (b8s  sa  ra'bi  a) 

269 


270 


Pronouncing  Glossary 


Bismarck-Schonhausen  (shen- 

how'z8n) 
Blenheim  (bl8n'8m)  or  (blen'- 

him) 

Bohemia  (bo  he'mi  a) 
Bonaparte  (bo'na  part) 
Bosnia  (b6z'ni  a) 
Bourbon  (boor'bun) 
Brandenburg  (bran'd8n  burg) 
Breton  (bre'ton)  or  (brgt'un) 
Bukowina  (boo  ko  vi'na) 
Bulgaria  (bul  ga'ri  a) 
Burgundians  (bur  gun'di  ans) 
Burgundy  (bur 'gun  dy) 
Byzantium  (by  zan'ti  um) 
Caesar  (sez'er) 
Carniola  (car  n'i  o'la) 
Carpathian  (car  pa'thi  an) 
Carthage  (car'thag) 
Castile  (cas  til') 
Castlereagh  (cas'l  ra) 
Cavour  (ca  vobr') 
Charlemagne  (shar  18  man') 
Chauvinists  (sho'vln  Ists) 
Cicero  (sls'ero) 
Cimbri  (slm'br!) 
Cincinnatus   (stn  sin  nat'us) 
Constantine  (con'stan  tin) 
Cracow  (cra'co) 
Crimea  (crl  me'a) 
Croatia   (cro  a'ti  a)  or   (cro- 

a'  sha) 
Czech  (ch6k) 
Dacians  (da'shuns) 
Dalmatia  (dal  ma'shii  a) 
Theophile    Delcasse    (ta'o  fil 

d6l  ca  sa') 

Devonshire  (dev'6n  sh'ir) 
Disraeli  (dlz  ra'll) 
Dobrudja  (do  brood'ja) 


Dreibund  (dri'boond)    ' 

Durazzo  (du  rat'zo) 

Emmanuel  (6m  man'u  81) 

Entente  Cordiale  (an  tani'- 
cor  dyal') 

Enver  Bey  (8n'ver  ba') 

Epinal  (ep'i  nal) 

Epirus  (8p  I'rus) 

Erse  (ers) 

Esthonians  (8s  tho'ni  ans) 

Etruscans  (e  trus'cans) 

Euphrates  (u  fra'tez) 

Fashoda  (fa  sho'da) 

Fiume  (f!  u'me) 

Gaelic  (ga'llc)" 

Gahcia  (gal  1'sha) 

Gallipoli  (gal  I'po  li) 

Garibaldi  (gar  i  bal'dii) 

Germanic  (jer  man'Ic) 

Glamis  (glam'Is) 

Gortchakoff  (gor'cha  k6f) 

Goths  (gSths) 

Granada  (gra  na'da) 

Hannibal  (han'nl  bl) 

Hanover  (han'o  ver) 

Hertzegovina  (hart'sS  go  v'i'- 
na) 

Hesse-Darmstadt  (h8s  s8- 
darm'stat) 

Hindustan  (hln  doo  stan') 

Hohenzollern  (ho  8n  tsol'ern) 

Holstein  (hol'stin) 

Illyrians  (1  lyr'I  ans) 

Istria  (Is'tri  a) 

Janina  (ya  ni'na) 

Janus  (ja'ntis) 

Jutes  (juts) 

Kaiser  (ki'zer) 

Kaspar  (kas'par) 

Kavala  (ka  va'la) 


Pronouncing   Glossary 


271 


Khartoom  (kar  toom') 
Korea  (ko  re'a) 
Koumanova  (koo  ma'no  va) 
Lamar  (la  mar') 
Leon  (le'6n) 
Liege  (li  eW) 
Lithuania  (llth  oo  a'n'i  a) 
Longwy  (ISng'vy) 
Lorraine  (lor  ran') 
Macedonia  (mS,  se  do'n'i  a) 
Magyar  (mSd'yar) 
Manchuria  (man  chu'ri  a) 
Marathon  (mar'a  th6n) 
Marchand  (mar  shan') 
Maria  Theresa  (ma  ri'a  tSr- 

es'a) 

Marlborough  (marl'bo  ro) 
Marsala  (mar  sa'la) 
Marseillaise  (mar  s6l  yaz') 
Mazzini  (mat  si'n'i) 
Mesopotamia  (m6s  o  po  ta'- 

mla) 

Metternich  (m6t'ter  nttdi) 
Mirabeau  (mlr'a  bo) 
Modena  (mo  de'na)  or  (mo'- 

dana) 

Mohammedan  (mo  hamfm8d- 
.  -an) 

Moltke  (molt'ka) 
Monastir  (mo  na  stir') 
Montenegrin  (m6n  te  ne'grm) 
Montenegro  (m6n  te  ne'gro) 
Moslems  (m6z'l6mz) 
Murat  (mu'ra) 
Napoleon  (na  po'le  6n) 
Nice  (n'is) 
Northumberland  (north  um'- 

ber  land) 

Novibazar  (no'vl  ba  zar') 
Ostrogoths  (6s'tro  gdths) 


Ottoman  (6t'to  man) 
Parma  (par'ma) 
Piedmont  (ped'mSnt) 
Pola  (po'la) 
Poland  (po'land) 
Pomerania  (p6m  6r  a'ni  a) 
Pyrenees  (plr'6n  eez) 
Reichstag  (rikhs'tagh) 
Riga  (ri'ga) 
Romansh  (ro  mansh') 
Roon  (ron) 
'Roumani  (roo  ma'ni) 
Roumania  (roo  ma'ni  a) 
Ruthenian  (roo  the'n'i  an) 
Sadowa  (sa'do  va) 
Salonika  (sa'lo  nii'ka) 
Sanjak  (san  jak') 
San  Stephano  (san  ste"  fa 'no) 
Saone  (son) 
Sarajevo  (sa  ra  y6'vo) 
Sardinia  (sar  dln'ii  a) 
Savoy  (sa  voy') 
Saxony  (sax'on  y) 
Sazanof  (sa'za  n6ff) 
Scandinavian  (scan  dl  na'v'i- 

an) 

Schleswig  (shlfis'vlg) 
Scutari  (skoo'ta  r'i) 
Serbia  (ser'bl  a) 
Silesia  (sll  e'sha) 
Skipetars  (skip'8  tars) 
Slavic  (sla'vlc) 
Slavonia  (sla  vo'ni  a) 
Slavonic  (sla  vftn'Ic) 
Slavs  (slavs) 
Slovak  (slo  vak') 
Slovenes  (slo  venz') 
Slovenian  (slo  ve'n'i  an) 
Sobieski  (so  bi  fis'kl) 
Strasbourg  (stras'boorg) 


272 


Pronouncing   Glossary 


Styria  (sty'rf  a) 

Suevi  (swe'vl) 

Syria  (syr'i  a) 

Talleyrand  (tal'la  ran) 

Teutones  (tu  to'nez) 

Teutonic  (tu  tSn'ic) 

Thessaly  (thes'sa  ly) 

Thracians  (thra'shuns) 

Tigris  (tl'gris) 

Toul  (tool) 

Transylvania    (tran  syl   va'- 

nia) 

Trentino  (tr6n  ti'no) 
Trieste  (tri  6st')  or  (tri  6s'ta) 
Tripoli  (trip'  5  li) 
Tuscany  (tus'ca  ny) 


Tyrol  (ty'rol) 

Tzernagorah  (tzer  na'  go'  r<!») 
Vandals  (van'  dls) 
Venetia  (v6n  e'  sha) 
Venizelos  (v6n  I  z61'6s) 
Vercingetorix  (ver  sin  jeVo- 

riks) 

Verdun  (vor  dtin') 
Volgars  (vol'garz) 
Vosges  (vozh) 
Walloon  (wal  loon') 
Westphalia  (w6st  fa'H  a) 
Wied  (weed) 
Wilhelmine  (wIl'hBl  mm) 
Yorkshire  (york'shir) 


INDEX 


Adriatic  Sea,  question  of  the 
control  of,  196. 

Agadir  incident,  189. 

Albania,  formation  of  the 
kingdom  of,  197. 

Albanians,  language  of,  64-7; 
habits  of,  77. 

Alexander  the  Great,  44. 

Algeciras  incident,  185-6. 

Alliance,  the  Holy,  145,  163. 

Alliance,  the  Triple,  173,  197. 

Alliance,  the  Dual,  174,  197. 

Alliance,  the  Balkan,  194, 
199. 

Alsace,  159,  181,  211. 

Ambassador,  151. 

Angles,  the,  invade  Britain, 
41. 

Arbitration  of  national  dis- 
putes, 267. 

Arminius,  35. 

Armor,  value  of,  44. 

Austria-Hungary,  origin  of, 
69-70;  helps  to  divide 
Poland,  102;  at  war  with 
France,  108  ff;  at  war  with 
Sardinia  and  France,  137  ff . ; 
at  war  with  Prussia  and 
Italy,  148;  refuses  to 
arbitrate  Serbian  trouble, 
215. 

Austrians  in  Italy,   118. 

Balance  of  Power,  164,  171, 
188. 


Balkan  problem,   73-7,    132, 

165,  167,  191,  195,  199,  235. 
Barons,  52-59. 

Bastille,    fall    of    the,     107. 
Belgium,    joined  to  Holland 

to  form  the  Netherlands, 

130;      independent,      133; 

guaranteed  its  freedom  by 

three  powers,  217. 
Bernadotte,  121,  123. 
Bismarck-Schbnhausen,  145- 

176. 
Blenheim,    battle    of    (poem 

16ff.),93. 
Bohemia,   part  of  the  Holy 

Roman    Empire,    91;  part 

of  the  Hapsburg  domains, 

69,  98. 
Bonaparte,  Louis  Napoleon, 

135. 
Bonaparte,    Napoleon,     112- 

126. 

Bosnian  problem,    172,    186. 
Bourbon  family,  131,  133. 
Brandenburg,  91;  rise  of,  95. 
Britons,  41,  73. 
Bulgaria,    freed    by    Russia, 

167;  left    partially    under 

the  control  of  Turkey,  171; 

independent,    193;  at   war 

with     five     nations,     200; 

plunges    into    world    war, 

239. 
Bulgars,    origin    of,    75;    in 

Macedonia,  85. 


273 


274 


Index 


Bulow,  Prince  von,  233. 
Burgundians,  36,  40. 
Byzantium     becomes     Con- 
stantinople, 78. 

Caesar,  Julius,  33,  48. 

Cape  to  Cairo  Railroad,  179. 

Catharine  II  of  Russia,  102. 

Cavour,  Count,  prime  minis- 
ter of  Sardinia,  137-139. 

Celtic  languages,  disappear- 
ance of,  63,  67. 

Celts,  32,  63. 

Charlemagne,  89-91,  138. 

Charles  V,  117. 

Charles  XII  of  Sweden,  255, 
262. 

Chauvinists,  207. 

Cincinnatus,  49. 

Constantinople,  78,  84. 

Cracow,  Republic  of,   132-3. 

Czechs,  246. 

Danes,  41,  in  Schleswig,  244. 
Dark  Ages,  45. 
Delcasse,  181,  186. 
Denmark,  loses  Norway,  131; 

defeated    by    Prussia    and 

Austria,  148. 
Dialects,  70. 
Dictator,  Roman,  49. 
Divine  right  of  kings,  50,  120, 

163. 

Dukes  vs.   Kings,    57-8,   88. 
Duma,  the  Russian,  207. 

Edward  VII,  182. 

Elba,       Napoleon's      return 

from,  125. 
Elector,  the  Great,  95. 


Electors  of  the  Holy  Roman 

Empire,  91. 
England,  power  of  the  king 

of,     89;    in    Egypt,     178; 

troubles  of,  in  1914,  212-3. 
Entente  Cordiale,  183. 
Entente,  the  Triple,  188. 
Esthonians,  247. 
Etruscans,  24. 

Fashoda    incident,     180-182. 

Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria,  237; 
enters  war  on  side  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  239; 
attacks  Serbia,  240;  ambi- 
tions of,  262. 

Feudal  system,  54-59. 

Finland  annexed  to  Russia, 
131. 

Finns,  62;  conquered  by  the 
Swedes,  261. 

Flemish,  130,  244. 

France,  power  of  king  of, 
88,  105;  execution  of  king 
of,  111;  in  Africa,  179;  wars 
of,  256. 

Franks,  36,  40,  113,  255. 

Franz  Ferdinand,  213. 

Frederick  the  Great,  97-104. 

French  Revolution,   107-111. 

Gaelic  language,  63. 

Gaels,  71,  73. 

Garibaldi,  136,  138,  141. 

Gauls,  40,  41. 

German  Confederation,   131, 

146,  149. 

German  tribes,  30. 
Germanic    languages,     63-4. 
Germany,   the  Holy  Roman 

Empire  of,  89. 


Index 


275 


Germany,  the  modern  Em- 
pire of,  159;  encourages 
France  to  declare  war  on 
England,  180;  makes 
friends  with  Turkey,  185; 
policy  toward  Balkan 
nations,  191;  warns  Russia, 
215;  attacks  France 
through  Belgium,  217-9. 

Goths,  36,  113,  255. 

Government,  by  the  people, 
14-6;  based  on  the  consent 
of  the  governed,  38;  limited 
to  the  ruling  class,  43. 

Governments,  newness  of 
European,  22. 

Great  Britain  offers  to  judge 
Serbian  trouble,  215;  de- 
clares war  on  Germany, 
226. 

Greece,  treaty  of,  with  Ser- 
bia, 240;  Greek  Empire, 
origin  of,  78;  fall  of,  80. 

Greeks,  24,  64. 

Hague,  court  of  the,  215. 
Hannibal's       war       against 

Rome,  255. 
Hapsburgs,  the,   69,  83,  92, 

113,  130. 

Hohenzollern  family,  95,  153. 
Holstein,  147,  160. 
Homage,  53ff . 
Hungarians,  62. 
Huns,  33,  35,  48,  113. 

Indemnity,     149,    159,    211. 
Indo-European      family      of 

languages,  62,  68. 
Istria,  142,  149,  232,  245. 


Italy,  a  battle  ground  of 
nations,  113-8;  becomes  a 
nation,  141;  makes  war  on 
Turkey,  223;  declines  to 
support  Austria  and  Ger- 
many, 224;  declares  war  on 
Austria,  233. 

Kavala,  194,  200,  236. 
Kent,  William,  on   Mexican 

intervention,  265. 
Kings,  origin  of,  47-51. 
Koumanova,  battle  of,   200. 

Labor  troubles,  in  England, 
213;  in  Russia,  208. 

Language,  relationship  shown 
by,  61-2. 

Latin  tongues,  64. 

Lithuania,  104,  131. 

Lombards,  36,  41,  74,  113, 
115,  255. 

Lorraine,  159,  181,211. 

Louis  XIV  of  France,  93,  261. 

Macedonia,  44,  85. 
Magyars,  65. 
Marathon,  battle  of,  44. 
Marchand,  Major,  180-2. 
Maria  Theresa,   Empress  of 

Austria,     100;     helps     to 

divide  Poland,  102. 
Marlborough,    Duke  of,    18, 

93. 

Mazzini,  136,  138. 
Metternich,  134,  144,  157. 
Middle  Ages,  45. 
Military    service,    owed    to 

rulers,  59;  in  Prussia,  147, 

in  France,  162,  205. 


276 


Index 


Mirabeau,  106. 
Moltke,  148,  152  ff . 
Montenegro,    origin    of,    81; 

declares   war   on   Austria, 

222. 

Moors,  33,  84. 
Murat,  121.  . 

Napoleon  III,  137,  148,  150-7. 
Netherlands,    foundation    of 

kingdom  of,  130. 
Newspapers,  control  of,  108, 

209,  227,  228. 
Normans,  42,  52. 
Norway,   joined  to  Sweden, 

131. 
Novibazar,    the    Sanjak    of, 

195. 

Ostrogoths,  52,  113,  114. 

Paris,  seige  of,  157. 

Peasants,  attached  to  the 
land,  55;  support  fighting 
classes,  87-8. 

Peter  the  Great,  89,  165. 

Poland,  kingdom  of,  97; 
partition  of,  101-4;  given 
largely  to  Russia,  131; 
revolutions  in,  132. 

Preparation  for  war,  175, 
203,  208. 

Prussia,  origin  of  kingdom  of, 
97;  crushed  by  Napoleon, 
120-1;  dominated  by  Bis- 
marck, 146-176. 

Reichstag,     159,     160,     205, 

209. 
Reign  of  Terror,  109. 


Republic,  first  French,  108  ff . ; 
second  French,  135;  third 
French,  162. 

Robber  chiefs,  45. 

Roman  Empire,  beginnings 
of,  25. 

Romansh  people,  245. 

Rome,  wars  of,  with  Carth- 
age, 254. 

Roon,  152,  155. 

Rothschild,  the  banking 
house  of,  210. 

Roumani,  25,  73,  76. 

Roumania,  25,  200;  hopes  of, 
241;  population  of,  248. 

Russia,  rise  of,  89;  attacks 
Turkey,  136;  policy  of, 
165  ff.;  relations  with  Bul- 
garia, 167,  194,  201;  de- 
fends Serbia,  215. 

Ruthenians,  246. 

Saxons,  41. 

Saxony,  annexed  in  part  to 
Prussia,  130;  allied  to 
Austria,  148. 

Salonika,  Spanish  Jews  in, 
84,  194. 

Sardinia,  kingdom  of,  113, 
136. 

Schleswig,  147,  160. 

Scutari,  194,  197. 

Serbia,  trade  with  Austria, 
194;  relations  with  Bul- 
garia, 191,  201;  trouble 
with  Austria,  214-6;  at- 
tacked on  three  sides, 
240. 

Serbs,  origin  of,  75;  lands  of, 
115;  language  of,  165. 


Index 


277 


Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the  Two, 
113,  120,  139. 

Silesia,  seizure  of,  100. 

Slavic  tribes,  31. 

Slovaks,  246. 

Slovenes,  246. 

Sobieski,  John,  king  of 
Poland,  81. 

Socialists,  in  Germany,  205; 
in  Italy,  222. 

Spain,  origin  of,  89;  drives 
out  "unbelievers,"  84;  be- 
comes a  republic,  134. 

Suevi,  33. 

Sweden,  decline  of,  256. 

Talleyrand,  129,  157. 
Trentino,  142,  149,  232,  245. 
Tunis,  seized  by  France,  173, 

222. 
Tr/rkey,  defended  by  France 

and  England,  136;  attacks 

Russia,  231. 


Turks,  62;  capture  Constanti- 
nople, 80;  driven  back  from 
Vienna,  81;  the  young 
Turks,  186. 

Ulster     trouble,     the,     212. 

Vandals,  36,  41,  114. 
Venice,  Republic  of.  119. 
Vercingetorix,  48. 
Victor  Emmanuel,  141. 
Vienna,  Congress  of,  127-132. 

Walloons,  130,  244. 

War,  four  causes  of,  21, 
261-4;  cost  of,  251;  diseases 
caused  by,  254;  increasing 
horror  of,  258;  a  remedy 
for,  265. 

Warsaw,  Grand-Duchy  of, 
121. 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  125. 

William  of  Normandy,  58, 
262. 


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